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METHODS AND AIDS 



IN GEOGRAPHY 



FOR THE USE OF 



TEACHERS AND NORMAL SCHOOLS 



BY 



CHARLES F. KING 

PRESIDENT OF NATIONAL SUMMER SCHOOL OF METHODS 

MASTER OF DEARBORN SCHOOL BOSTON 

FORMERLY SUB-MASTER OF LEWIS SCUOOL BOSTON 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 



REVISED EDITION 



BOSTON 1895 
LEE AND SHEPARD Publishfrs 

10 MILK STREET NEXT " THE OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE " 



Copyright, i8S8, by Lee and Shepard. 



All rights restrved 



PRESSWORK BY ROCKWELL AND CHURCHILL. 



"W"hEN geography ceases to be a lifeless aggre- 
gate of unorganized facts, and deals with the esirth 
as a true organization, — a world capable of constant 
development, carrying in its bosom the seeds of the 
future, to germinate and unfold age after age, — it first 
attains the unity and wholeness of a science, and 
sho"ws that it grows from a living root; it becomes 
capable of systematic exposition, and takes its true 
place in the circle of sister sciences. — Rittek. 

The power of teaching a little, depends 
upon the power of kno'wing a great deal. 

Good methods of teaching are important, 
but they cannot supply the want of ability in the 
teacher. The Socratic method is good ; but a Socrates 
behind the teacher's desk, to ask the questions, is 
better. — Balubt. 



BOOKS BY CHARLES F. KING 

Prhicipal Dearbor7i Grammar School, Boston. 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

For the Use of Teachers and Normal Schools. 
Price, ;fi.2o net ; by mail, ti-zi- 

PICTURESQUE GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

Supplementary and Regular Reading in Schools 
AND THE Home. Handsomely illustrated. 

The /allowing are now ready : 

First Book. Home and School. 125 Illustrations. 

50 cents net ; by mail 58 cents. 

Second Book. This Continent of Ours. 179 Illus- 
trations. 72 cents net ; by mail, 83 cents. 

Third Book. The Land we Live In. Part I. 153 

Illustrations. ^6 cents net ; by mail, 64 cents. 

Fourth Book. The Land We Live In. Part II. 
150 Illustrations 56 cents net ; by mail, 64 cents. 

Fifth Book. The Land We Live In. Part III. 

Rocky Mountains and Pacific Slope. 180 Illustrations 
56 cents fiet ; by mail, 64 cents 

Other books 0/ the series will soon be ready. 



LEE AND SEEPARD, Publishers, Boston. 



PREFACE 



THE greatest enterprises of the present day are the 
result of accurate geographical knowledge. The finest 
exhibitions of heroism and bravery and suffering have been 
endured amid frigid cold or tropic heat, in order to enlarge 
the world's geographical information ; and the most exqui- 
site pleasure enjoyed by educated people is found in real 
geographical study while travelling. 

In the different German universities, there are to-day 
twelve regular professors of geography. France has twenty- 
five geographical societies, with a membership of over 
twenty thousand. England has five societies ; Germany, 
two ; and America, one. At the annual meetings of these 
numerous societies, and in the one hundred and twenty 
periodicals published by them, the growing importance of 
geographical study has been eloquently discussed, and the 
strongest criticisms expressed in reference to the methods 
and text-books so universally employed in teaching the 
subject. 

Geography is the most fascinating, or the least attractive, 
study in the common-school curriculum, according to the 
method and books employed in teaching it. The inferior 
instruction given in this subject when the author attended 
the district school, and his own failures in the same line 



VI PREFACE 

when he began his life-work in New Bedford in 1867, have 
led, by a deep-felt necessity, to long and earnest study, and 
to continued efforts for better methods and more satisfactory 
results. 

The object of this book is to give the teaching fraternity 
the results of these twenty years of experience in the school- 
room. 

Ideas and facts have been gathered, by much patient 
research, from many available sources. Most of the books 
thus freely consulted are mentioned at the beginning of the 
chapters. Teachers are urged to purchase these books as 
fast as means will allow, that they may have the satisfaction 
of more extended information, and consequently greater 
teachirig power. 

It gives the author great pleasure to acknowledge here 
special assistance and suggestion from Misses O'Neil and 
Murphy, Lewis School, Roxbury ; from Professor Charles F. 
Adams, Massachusetts State Normal School, Worcester ; 
from Professor Thomas M. Balliet, superintendent of schools, 
Springfield • from Dr. S. T. Button, superintendent of schools. 
New Haven ; and from many of the officials in the Boston 
Public Library, among whom particular mention should be 
made of Mr. A. P. C. Griffin, whose accurate memory, and 
wonderful knowledge of books, have frequently been of the 
greatest assistance. 

To my friend and fellow-worker, Mr. M. T. Pritchard, 
master of the Comins School, Boston, Mass., I am greatly 
indebted for many valuable suggestions, and for the careful 
reading of both the manuscript and the proofs. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Principles involved in Teaching Geography ... i 

11. Aims and Relative Importance of Geography ... 21 

III. Wrong Methods vs. The Topical Method ^7 

IV. Advantages of the Topical Method 53 

V. Apparatus 75 

VI. Map Language 89 

VII. Maps 99 

VIII. Pictures and Objects 121 

IX. Miscellaneous Devices 137 

X. Model Lessons i8g 

XI. Six Years' Course of Study 221 

XII. Six Years' Course of Study {concluded) ...... 235 

XIII. What to Teach on North America 255 

XIV. What to Teach on North America (contimted) . . 2S5 
XV. What to Teach on North America {concluded) . . 321 

XVI. Commercial Geography 341 

XVII. Commercial Geography {concluded) 361 

XVIII. Mathematical Geography ^ 385 

XIX. Sources of Information and Illustration .... 425 

XX. List of a Thousand Bocks 453 

vli 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Principal Cities of the United States Proniispiece, 

FIGURE PAGE 

1. Portrait of Ritter 27 

2. Portrait of Humboldt 29 

3. Outline of the World. Opposite 70 

4. Same Outline filled in by Pupil. Opposite 70 

5. Rubber Pen 84 

6. Dishes and Brushes used in Sand Map 103 

7. Beginning of the Sand Map 104 

8. Sand Map, Second Step 105 

9. Sand Map, completed 106 

10. Contour Lines 109 

11. Diagram for North America 112 

12. Progressive Map, North America 115 

13. Progressive Map, North America 115 

14. Progressive Map, North America 115 

15. Progressive Map, North America 115 

16. Heath's Outline Map n8 

17. The Same filled in , 119 

18. Old-fashioned Picture 125 

19. New-style Picture 126 

20. Size of Continents and Water 139 

21. Continents compared with Each Other 139 

22. Comparative Size of States and Other Countries ... 141 

23. A Part of the United States compared with Argentine 

Republic and British India 142 

ix 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

figure page 

24. Brazil and the United States 143 

25. Alaska and the United States 144 

26. Length of California on the Ati,antic Coast .... 145 

27. Area of France and Germany 146 

28. Area of England, Belgium, etc 146 

29. Comparative Size of Mountains 146 

30. Comparative Size in Population of Various Cities, etc. 147 

31. London compared with New England and New Jersey . 148 

32. Startling Statistics 149 

33. Manufacturing and Agriculture compared 149 

34. Different Parts of the United States compared ... 151 

35. Different Grand Divisions compared 151 

36. Different Creeds compared 151 

37. Shapes of Countries 153 

38. Mouths of the Po 155 

39. Sketch-Map of Flodden Field 162 

40. Sketch-Map of Oceanica 162 

41. Industries of the Mediterranean 164 

42. Diagram of the Rain from the Ocean 167 

43. Currents produced , 168 

44. How to represent Elevations 170 

45. Sketch-Map of the Mississippi Valley 171 

46. Number of Inhabitants in Wet and Dry Climates ... 172 

47. Number of Inhabitants in Warm and Cold Temperatures, 174 

48. coal-flelds of the united states 1 79 

49. Map OF Mauch Chunk i8o 

50. A Falling Roof iSo 

51. Coal Breaker 180 

52. Pen-picture of Mauch Chunk 181 

53. Another Title-page drawn with Pen 182 

54. Illustration from Frink's Composition 186 

55. Belts of Forests and Deserts. Opposite 187 

56. The Upheavals and Depressions. Opposite 187 

57. Comparisons of the Grand Divisions in Area. Opposite . 260 

58. Elevations of Eastern United States 269 

59. The Great Lakes 274 



/ 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS X. 
figure pace 

60. The Great Bend in the Mississippi River 275 

61. Profile of Niagara Falls 278 

62. Annual Industries 371 

63. Annual Industries of the World 371 

64. Annual Industries of the United States 371 

65. Perpendicular and Sloping Rays 399 

66. Simple Apparatus for measuring Latitude 405 

67. Great Dipper and Cassiopeia 407 

68. Yearly Motion of the Earth 417 



INTRODUCTION 



A WORD or two, at this point, in reference to the wisest 
use of the book, may not be amiss. The different 
chapters may be classified under the following heads : — 

1. How to teach geography. 

2. What to teach in geography. 

3. Where to find valuable geographical knowledge. 

In order to obtain the greatest benefits possible from the 
contents, it is well not to attempt to follow with bUnd 
confidence all the methods recommended in the first part. 
Although these methods have been employed in my own 
school, or by trusted teachers in other schools, and all have 
been found to be excellent where used, yet your circum- 
stances may be very different. It is your privilege, as well 
as your duty, to select, or find out by experiment, the 
methods best adapted to your own schoolroom. Modify 
these methods, if necessary, so as to make them really your 
own, and then success will invariably follow. 

If your school is not well graded, or if your committee, 
superintendent, or principal requires certain results, you 
may need to modify your use of the book to correspond. 
It is believed, however, that nearly all the methods, slightly 
changed to meet different conditions, will be found to be 
most helpful to any teacher of geography. 



XIV INTRODUCTION 

Under the head of Whai to teach, extensive statistical 
information has been given, not to be memorized, but 
simply as inaterial with which teacher and pupil can form 
comparisons, from which they can draw conclusions, and 
with which they can construct a better geography than the 
ordinary text-book provides. In this way pupils will un- 
consciously learn and remember all the necessary facts. 

In Chap. XVIII., on Commercial Geography, and in 
Chaps. XIX. and XX., devoted to Sources of Information 
and Illustration, a large amount of varied information, not 
easily accessible, has been presenced, in order to give a wide 
range of selection. The wise teacher will daily choose from 
these chapters such additional information as will make the 
lesson more interesting and profitable. Many of the books 
mentioned in the volume ought to be found in your own 
town-library, under each author's name ; or they can prob- 
ably be purchased at the nearest bookstore ; or, if you 
prefer, the publishers of this volume will cheerfully furnish 
information, and fill orders for any book mentioned. 

The headings to the chapters will frequently be service- 
able in review work, and the table of contents and index 
can be used in a similar manner with normal classes. In 
addition to the usual style, the publishers have bound the 
book in flexible covers, so that it will easily lie open upon 
the teacher's desk, and be more readily used. The illustra- 
tions are of a practical, rather than an artistic, nature, and 
are such as can be readily reproduced in crayon on the 
blackboard. Most of them have been drawn by my own 
pupils, and reproduced by photography. 

Many of the historical and descriptive references in this 
book apply to New England ; but they are merely sug- 



INTRODUCTION. XV 

gestive, and the wise teacher can readily adapt them to suit 
other locahties. 

The word "geography" is a comprehensive term, and 
admits of many subdivisions, — physical, political, historical, 
descriptive, ethnographical, mathematical, etc. Each of 
these parts is a science in itself, and has its special field for 
investigation and development. In all schools for primary 
and secondary instruction, there need be but little done in 
any one of the particular subdivisions. What is required 
is a judicious blending of all into an harmonious whole, in 
which no subordination, no prominence, is given to any part 
of the all-embracing science. 

In some recently pubHshed manuals, undue — and for 
practical purposes unwise — prominence has been given to 
physical geography, seemingly founded on the definition 
that "geography is a description of the earth's surface;" 
whereas the educational spirit of the age requires tKe addi- 
tion of the words, " and its inhabitants," to the trite and 
much-abused definition. 

In the following pages, the endeavor has been made to 
suggest some methods for teaching geography comprehen- 
sively but not exhaustively. Hence only a fetu of the 
simple and interesting facts of physical geography are 
mentioned in the Six Years' Course laid out in Chapters 
XL and XII. 

In this matter our experience, as set forth in this volume, 
happily agrees with Ritter, Guyot, Reclus, Geikie, Crocker, 
and Carver. 



INTRODUCTION TO TEACHERS' EDITION. 



METHODS AND AIDS has been most generously 
received by the teachers of this country. Nine 
editions have been issued, and the demand is as great at 
the present time as it was when the first edition came 
from the press. To meet this demand, and to introduce 
changes necessitated by the census of 1890, a new and 
popular edition has been prepared. In this edition 
more than three hundred new foot-notes have been 
added, titles to new books given, new devices and ap- 
proved methods introduced, and several changes in the 
text have been made. 

The methods advocated in this volume are the result 
or many years of instruction in the class-room ; they grew 
up out of the needs for a broader scope to the work of 
instructing pupils in a knowledge of the world we live in. 

Let no teacher, however, for a moment imagine that he 
must acquire a vast amount of apparatus and several 
hundred books on geography before he begins to teach 
topically and illustratively, but rather let him make a be- 
ginning at once with the few helps in reach, and with little 
or no expense. 

It was in this simple, humble way that the writer began 
twenty-five years ago. The results were so satisfactory, 
both to himself and his pupils, that after still longer ex- 
perience the author would say to those using this book 

Begin, Experiment, Grow. 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



CHAPTER I 

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 



A KNOWLEDGE of the laws of mental operations, in other words, 
of their conditions, is a matter of the greatest practical utility to the 
educator. — Sully. 

I 



BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 



Calderwood's Teaching. 

Currie's Common School Education. 

Compayre's History of Pedagogy. 

Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. 

Froebel's Education of Man. 

Gill's .Systems of Education. 

Hewitt's Pedagogy. 

Krun's Life of Pestalozzl 

Johnson's Education by Doing. 

Johonnot's Principles and Practice. 

Laurie's Comenius. 

Locke on Education. 

Page's Theory and Practice. 

Parker's Talks on Education. 

Jos. Payne's Lectures on Education. 

W. H. Payne's Science of Education. 

rosenkranz's philosophy of education. 

Quick's Educational Reformers. 

Spencer's Education, 

Sully's Psychology. 

Thring's Theory and Practice of Education. 

Tate's Philosophy of Education. 

White's Elements of Pedagogy. 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



CHAPTER I 

PART I — PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE TEACHER 

EXACT KNOWLEDGE — CAREFUL PREPARATION — FREE INTERCOURSE BETWEEN 
TEACHER AND PUPIL — INSTRUCTION ADAPTED TO THE CHILD-MIND — CHILDREN 
NOT TO BE TOLD EVERY THING — THE RIGHT ORDER OF PRESENTING A SUBJECT 

PART II — PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE PUPIL 

pupils' OBSERVING POWERS — SENSATION AND ATTENTION BEFORE PERCEPTION — 
HABIT OF ATTENTION, HOW CULTIVATED — THE ACTIVITY OF THE EAR, THE EYE, 
AND THE HAND — PROFESSOR CALDERWOOD AND OTHERS — INTELLIGENT OBSERVATION 
SHOULD BE CULTIVATED — " ALCAZAR " — NOT EASY TO CLASSIFY, ETC. — TO MIS- 
TAKE THE SIGN — REVIEW AND REPETITION 



PART I 

PEINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE TEACHER 

1. The Necessity of Ample and Exact Knowledge of the Subject taught. 

OLD ROGER ASCHAM in his "Schoolmaster" de- 
scribes his ideal student and teacher as " Philoponos, 
that one who hath lust to labor; and Zetetikos, one that 
is always desirous to search out any doubt, not ashamed to 
learn of the meanest, nor afraid to go to the greatest, till 
he be perfectly taught and fully satisfied." 

3 



4 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

" A teacher," said Edward Everett, " ought to know, of every thing, 
much more than the learner can be expected to acquire. The teacher 
must know things in a masterly way, curiously and nicely and in their 
reasons. He must see truth under all its aspects, with its antecedents 
and consequents, or he cannot present it in just that shape in which 
the young mind can apprehend it. He must, as he holds the 
diamond up to the sun, turn its facets round and round, till the pupil 
catches the lustre." 

Education is both an art and a science. The art of edu- 
cation deals with the methods; the science of education 
explains the principles. Daily work in the schoolroom gives 
experience in the art of teaching ; reading Sully, or listening 
to some of the great lecturers on psychology or pedagogics, 
increases one's knowledge of the science of teaching. 

The main object and purpose of this book is practical : 
to help the teacher directly in his work, to deal with the 
methods of teaching geography, — the art of the subject, — 
rather than to study and consider the principles underlying 
those methods. Yet to save repetition and constant refer- 
ence to numerous educational books, some of which may 
not be in the reader's library at the present time, it may be 
well to recall and emphasize a few well-known and generally 
accepted principles of education, now believed in and prac- 
tised by the best instructors of the world. 

It was a remark of Professor Henry, that 

"The laws which govern the growth and operations of the human 
mind are as definite and as general in their application as those which 
apply to the material universe ; and it is evident that the true system 
of education must be based upon a knowledge and application of 
those laws." 

If a stranger should to-day visit a dozen schools in Boston 
or any large city in this country, and report the five teachers 



CAREFUL PREPARATION 5 

who seemed to possess the greatest teaching capacity, he 
would without doubt select men of whom the superintendent 
of the city would laughingly say, " Of course they did well 
on those subjects, for they are experts in those departments." 
And further study of the five cases by the stranger would 
reveal the fact that these men possessed fine memories, that 
they were great readers, that they had been studying those 
particular branches for years and years, that they possessed 
large libraries on their favorite subjects, that they were 
never satisfied with their present knowledge, but were ever . 
trying to increase their acquaintance with these studies. 

The old adage. Knowledge is power, is never truer than 
in the work of teaching. Alas ! how often have teachers 
tried to deny the truth of this saying in reference to geogra- 
phy ; and how often have their dismal and cruel failures 
testified to the general correctness of the adage ! 

Exact, full, complete knowledge of the subject gives the 
teacher that self-confidence necessary to the best presentation 
of information, makes him court questions, independent of 
one little text-book, broad-minded, able to make comparisons, 
to express decided opinions if necessary, and, best of all, 
confers the power to stimulate by unconscious example the 
desire in the students to learn more on the subject. 

2. This Exact KnoiTledge requiring Careful Daily Preparation. 

Fitch truly says, " The moment any man ceases to be a 
systematic student, he ceases to be an effective teacher." 

Constant study keeps the teacher in sympathy with the 
pupils, makes him more patient and more willing to explain. 
His example encourages them to work faithfully as nothing 
else will. 



6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Geography is not an exact science, like arithmetic, which 
may perhaps be once learned, and learned forever. Geog- 
raphy is constantly enlarging its scope and changing its facts 
as the world progresses. Hence the live teacher must make 
fresh preparation, or teach a legeiidary geography, as is 
really being done all about us by the servile users of most 
text-books. Compare the productions and exports given 
for various countries, in many geographies, with the facts 
stated in the United States Consular Reports, and notice the 
wonderful differences. 

3. Free Intercourse to be encouraged between Teacher and Pupils. 

If the teacher has made the careful preparation men- 
tioned above, he will be ready to encourage a certain dig- 
nified, and, at the same time, free, intercourse between 
himself and his class, such as will lead them to ask all kinds 
of questions upon the subjects under consideration, and 
also to impart information acquired at home, on their 
travels, by extra reading, even to present opinions of authors 
and books, and to give reasons for the same. No greater 
mistake can be made by a teacher than to hold himself so 
far above his pupils that they do not dare to be familiar 
enough with him to seek explanations of things misunder- 
stood. All proper questions should be welcome, for nothing 
shows more conclusively good attention than the asking of 
a pertinent question at the right moment. The proper 
reply to the question may be, " Look in the dictionary," 
" in the gazetteer," or " in the geography." 

Teachers can in a short time educate a class to exhibit 
this feeling of confidence, by refusing ever to laugh at mis- 
takes, or to allow members of the class to do so, by refrain- 



THE AVERAGE CHILD 7 

ing from sarcastic remarks, and by approving all efforts 
made by the pupils in the direction recommended. When- 
ever a pupil gives some fact unknown to teacher as well as 
pupil, the teacher will wisely acknowledge his ignorance, 
and commend the pupil who taught him something. This 
course pleases the pupil, and makes him think all the more 
of his teacher. 

4. The Method of Instruction adapted to the Mind of tlie Average 
Child in the Class. 

As long as the present foolish and expensive method of 
teaching pupils in large classes of fifty-six members is 
adhered to by school-boards, under false ideas of economy, 
the teacher is practically prevented from giving much indi- 
vidual instruction in the regular time for school work. He 
must work with the class as a unit, and adapt his instruc- 
tion and methods, not to the brightest ten, not to the dullest 
ten, but to the ability and understanding of the middle 
section of the class. 

Some teachers make the mistake of spending most of 
their time and energy with the slow and dull pupils. Such 
a course is entirely wrong, because so unjust to the bright 
members of the class. The teacher must not undertake to 
supply deficiencies of brain ; that is the work of the Creator. 
In every class there will be some who can never understand, 
never remember, never be as accurate, as ordinary children. 
Such pupils can never be made perfect, even if they were 
placed under the most favorable circumstances of having 
a teacher all by themselves. After the teacher has adapted 
his rate of progress and simplicity of explanation to the 
ability of the average child, and made him understand, he 



8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

should advance for the sake of the middle part and the best 
part of his class, which together constitute the majority. 

As classes differ year by year, a teacher's progress will 
vary in different years, and his methods change, in detail, 
at least. Hence the wise teacher studies his class as well 
as the subject to be taught. 

Thring says, — 

" The teacher's subject is not books, but mind. On the other 
hand, the lecturer's subject, in the first instance, is not mind, but 
books. This distinction is vital, and the most important results 
follow." 

5. Children not to be told what they can And out for themselves. 

Sir William Hamilton says, — 

" The primary principle of education is the determination of the 
pupil to self-activity, — the doing nothing for him which he is able to 
do for himself." 

Payne says, — 

" One of the most important principles in education is, that what 
a child does for and by himself, educates him. The highest form of 
teaching consists, then, in setting a child to gain knowledge for him- 
self by the exercise of his own native powers." 

These men do not mean that the teacher is never to 
render help to the pupil : he is ; but that help will be the 
best which aims to encourage pupils to help themselves. 
The teacher who awakens enthusiasm, guides and satisfies 
it when awakened, does much more for the pupil than the 
teacher who simply imparts information. The teacher should 
never forestall the delight which every mind has in finding 
out truth for itself. 



PROFESSOR JACOTOT 9 

How does Nature teach? She makes her pupils teach 
themselves. She gives no explanation, no discourse. She 
does not tell the difference between hard and soft things : 
she says, " Feel them ; " between this animal and that, she 
says, " Place them side by side, and find out the difference 
yourself." 

Perhaps no teacher ever followed nature's methods more 
closely than Jacotot, professor at Louvain, Belgium, and 
who died in Paris in 1840. Instead of pouring forth a flood 
of information on the subject under consideration, from 
his own ample stores, and explaining the whole matter, 
he would make a few simple statements, and then invite 
his pupils to raise questions, make observations, suggest 
answers, ask for facts. His object was to excite and direct 
the intellectual energies of his pupils, — to tram them to 
think. His fundamental principle was : Learn something, 
and refer all the rest to it. His system is condensed into 
four words : Learn^ repeat, reflect, and verify.' 

Rousseau says in his " Emile :" — 

" I do not at all admire explanatory discourses ; young people give 
little attention to them, and never retain them. Things ! things ! I can 
never enough repeat it, that we make words of too much consequence." 

There is need at the present time, for teachers to heed 
the warning sounded in the above extracts. Just as soon as 
a teacher begins to depart from text-book instruction in 
geography, for instance, he is apt to substitute his own 
tongue for the book, and pour into the empty air useless 
words which disappear like dew in the morning. 

Instead of the teacher reading to the children frequently 

' For an interesting account of Jacotot's method, see Jos. Payne's Education 
English edition, p. 79. 



lO METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

on geographical subjects, he should help them to read to 
him ; instead of telling them geographical facts, direct them 
where and when to find these facts, and how to present 
them to the class as new knowledge. Instead of interpret- 
ing the map to the children, teach them to read it as they 
do a book, and to relate what it tells to one another. The 
great object of this book is to suggest to teachers, how to 
make the child learn geog)'aphy for himself under the guid- 
ance of his teacher. 

6. The Necessity of being Orderly in giving Instruction : of proceeding 
from Particular Facts to General Truths ; from the Simple to the 
Complex ; from the Known to the Unknown. 

Jos. Payne says : — 

* The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, proceeds from the 
concrete to the abstract, from particular facts to general facts or 
principles, and from principles to laws, rules, and definitions; and not 
in the inverse order." 

There should be an orderly arrangement of what is taught, 
if for no other reason, because the memory retains facts more 
readily if presented in a natural order. The laws of mind, 
in this respect, are in harmony with the laws of nature. All 
well-written scientific articles, the best stories and poems, 
are developed in logical order. 

The impossibility of remembering what violates this natu- 
ral order of arrangement is well illustrated by the following 
example. Foote, the comedian, once won a wager by 
betting that a certain man of a powerful memory could not 
memorize in ten minutes the following : — 

''So she went into the garden to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an 
apple-pie ; and at the same time a she-bear coming up the street, pops 



THE CHILD'S MIND 1 1 

its head into the shop. What, no soap ? So he died, and she very 
imprudently married a barber. And there were present the Picinin- 
nies, the elegant, and the Joblillies, and the Gargulies, and the grand 
Panjandrum himself; with a little round bonnet at the top; and they 
all fell to playing catch as catch again ; till the gunpowder ran out of 
the heels of their boots." 

There is a great deal of teaching which presents the sub- 
ject to the young mind in about as jumbled-up a mess as 
the above nonsensical extract. Every teacher knows how 
easy it is to remember certain lectures and sermons, how 
difficult to recall others. Every teacher should study out 
the reason, and apply the deductions to his own teaching.' 

This leads to the second part of this chapter, — the im- 
portance' of understanding a child's mind in order to 
teach to the best advantage. 



PAJ^T II 
PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE PUPIL 

The nature of a child's mind usually shows 

1. His ObserTing Powers to be Keener and more Actire than his 
Reasoning Powers. 

Thring wisely says, — 

"The complete absence of the reasoning faculty, so far as learning 
by means of it goes, determines at once the whole character of good 
teaching at the beginning. There must be simple statements and 
simple explanations. The early stages require the new ideas and 
facts to be put like pictures before the pupil. Rigid, formulated, 

* Professor W. W. White's System of Training the Memory will greatly benefit 
teachers who possess poor memories. . 



12 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

square statements cannot find their way with their corners into the 
little tortuous windings of the little mind with all its blind mazes, 
passages that lead to nothing, obstructions of previous ideas, mob* 
of small idolatries, idolatries of play, idolatries of day-dreams, com 
bined with absolute incapacity to bar the unyielding thrust of logio 
in its fine tissues." 

In children the senses and the observing powers are keen 
and active, the mind being principally directed to the per- 
ception of the qualities of objects and their simple rela- 
tions. Notice how readily boys and girls learn new games. 
How much two boys will see in riding or walking on a 
new road ! How minutely they will describe a fire or an 
accident ! What good observers they frequently are of the 
habits and actions of animals 1 

As the mind develops, more obscure and complex rela- 
tions of objects are considered. Finally at maturity (from 
twenty-five to forty years of age) the reflective powers are 
most active. But the perceptive and conceptive faculties are 
not at this period thrown aside. The man of science bases 
his generalizations on his observations. Darwin, Agassiz, 
and Asa Gray could both see and tliink better than ordinary 
men. Their greatness is due to the complete development 
of both powers. The observation of the child is different 
, from that of the man. The child's observation is largely 
that of perception ; that of the man, of reason. 

2. Childhood the Best Time to cnltirate Intelligent Obserration. 

For the teacher to cultivate intelligent observation, to a 
large extent even in the grammar grade, is more rational 
than to cram the memory with words without meaning. 
The teacher can do this by teaching geography and history. 



INTELLIGENT OBSERVATION 1 3 

as far as practical, through pictures, maps, charts, and 
specimens, and by encouraging observations of nature. 
These observations should be planned and directed, and 
reports called for, either in writing or by oral recitation. 

Side by side with this observation through the eye, should 
be cultivated by the teacher the observation of the meaning 
of words and their proper employment, in order to describe 
accurately and intelligently. 

No study affords better opportunities for developing the 
observing powers than geography. If a teacher make the 
most of his opportunities, he will not only secure grand 
results, but have the pleasure of knowing that he is teaching 
philosophically, and developing the mind of the child in 
accordance with metaphysical laws. 

Teachers need constantly to study the child-mind so as 
not to attempt to convey ideas belonging to one sense 
through another. Ideas of form, height, length, color, and 
the like, come through sight and touch alone. Forgetting 
this, teachers frequently try to convey to the minds of little 
children correct ideas of localities, through mere verbal 
descriptions, addressed to the ear, and wonder why the minds 
of the pupils are so listless, and why the children do not 
make good recitation thereupon. If a child has never seen 
a mountain, never seen a number of pictures of mountains 
and mountain scenery, how can he understand a finely given 
description of the Andes? and if he does not understand, 
why should he be interested? If the description given 
recalls no concept in his mind of the thing described, time 
and energy are wasted. But descriptions with illustrations 
are £ilways interesting and valuable. 

A vivid illustration of how new ideas come into the mind 



14 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

was recently afforded the author while reading Dr. Hale's 
interesting book, " The Seven Cities of Spain." In one chap- 
ter he refers to the " Alcazar : " this he calls in another 
chapter " an imposing pile ; " on another page it is spoken 
of as a " palace ; " again as " a building ; " then in another 
place he speaks of " the gardens of the -Alcazar." No clear 
conception was given the reader by these expressions ; and 
little idea was realized of what an Alcazar was, till the pic- 
ture was accidentally found several days later under the word 
Toledo, in Appleton's Encyclopaedia. If the readers of this 
chapter will try to form an idea of an Alcazar from what 
has been said, and theti look at the picture in the encyclo- 
paedia, and compare the former concept with the latter, 
they will perhaps realize the value of pictures in teaching 
children. 

3. That Sensation and Attention precede Perception. 

By this is meant, knowledge must be (?(^tained before it 
can be retained ; it must be both obtained and retained 
before it can be used. In obtaining knowledge of things, 
sensation must be experienced before attention can be 
given, and both the sensation and attention must precede 
perception. 

These fundamental truths are constantly violated in teach- 
ing, by some teachers who fret, fume, and scold because 
their pupils do not remember operations in arithmetic which 
they, the pupils, never understood, for they never were 
explained and illustrated. These same teachers wonder 
why children forget the names of capes, the length of 
rivers, the locality of towns that have no earthly interest to 
these children, for nothing has ever been told them about 



CURIOSITY, SYMPATHY, AND ACTIVITY 1 5 

these places to create an interest, not even the beautiful 
meaning of the geographical names. Adult minds usually 
act in the same way. If the lecture or sermon was be- 
yond the comprehension, it did not interest ; then it was 
not remembered. 



4. His Habit of Attention cnlti?ated by appealing to Curiosity, Sympathy, 
and Love of Activity. 

There are very few children who do not have a natural 
curiosity to see what is in the closed box, to hear the end 
of the story, to know more about the subject. A little 
information in reference to the camel creates a curiosity, or 
desire, to learn more about the "ship of the desert." By 
this information, the skilful teacher creates a curiosity to 
learn about the desert, and that knowledge of the desert 
creates a curiosity to know something of Africa, the home 
of the camel and of the desert. If the teacher uses 
pictures, maps, and charts which appeal to the eye in impart- 
ing this information in a way understood by the child, the 
curiosity never flags, and the attention is satisfactory. 

Sympathy is another great help in securing attention. 
Hearty interest in the subject manifested by the teacher 
secures the attention of the pupil almost unconsciously. 
This was one secret of Agassiz' power as a teacher. 

Madame Necker says, — 

"The idea that we are constantly occupied about him may excite 
his gratitude, but it will not determine the direction of his inclina- 
tions. But if children see that our interest is awakened, and our 
curiosity excited, by the idea of making some new observation, or 
ascertaining some new fact, they will soon try to anticipate oui 
discoveries." 



1 6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

It has been our custom for years to study zviih the 
children m geography, history, etc. The results have been 
most gratifying. In giving out the lesson, do not say, 
" Yoii may take," but "We will take chmate for the next 
lesson." When the hour for recitation comes, ask first, 
" Now what iiave we learned?" Be sure to give due credit 
for new facts. Be sure also to have some interesting facts 
to relate, not generally known, to show that you, the teacher, 
have been studying with your pupils. 

The well-known activity of children can be much more 
easily directed than repressed ; and when directed it becomes 
a source of great pleasure, and helps to fix the attention in 
the closest manner. 

This activity may be classified as that of the Ear, of the 
Eye, of the Hand. 

The teacher can always direct that of the ear by asking 
questions. The topical study of a subject does not mean 
the use only of topical recitation. The topical recitation 
should be freely used in review, used more in upper classes 
than in lower, used somewhat in all grades ; but the child's 
mental activity requires also short, sharp, direct, quickly 
given questions, so that every one in the class can think 
out the correct answer. The question must be asked before 
the pupil is called to answer, in order that all may think the 
answer. Teachers very commonly violate this order, and 
wonder why the pupils are not more interested. These 
questions should be of two kinds, — first, those in relation 
to the bare facts of the lesson ; second, those in reference to 
the relation of these facts to cause and effect, in reference 
to the tvhy, in reference to comparison by similarity and 
by contrast. 



ACTIVITY OF EYE AND HAND I 7 

Some children will answer well the first kind of questions, 
and utterly fail on the second. Girls frequently answer the 
first better than boys, while boys usually reason and think 
better than they remember the book. The ivhy questions 
should be interspersed with the fact questions, and not 
bunched at the end or beginning of the recitation. 

The activity of the eye is readily directed by the teacher's 
use of pictures, charts, and the blackboard. The success 
of kindergarten schools is largely due to directing this 
activity of the eye and hand. Grammar-school teachers 
make a serious mistake in teaching, and show their com- 
plete ignorance of the child-mind, when they suppose this 
activity of the eye and hand ceases at the age of nine or 
ten years. It will be much safer to place the limit at 
twenty. In fact, it Jiever wholly ceases. 

The methods of directing the activity of the eye are fully 
given in the chapter on Pictures and Objects. In passing 
we only need quote a few authorities. 

Professor Calderwood says, — 

" Children are most susceptible of what comes through the senses. 
It is therefore a great point gained, when the eyes as well as the ears 
of the puj)i]s can be kept in exercise during the lesson. To reach 
the mind by double avenues at the same moment, is to increase the 
chance of success." 

Pestalozzi says, — 

"There are scarcely any circumstances in which the want of 
application in children does not proceed from the want of interest. 
. . . To change all this, we must adopt a better mode of instruction, 
by which the children are less left to themselves, less thrown upon 
unwelcome employments of passive listening, but more aroused by 
questions, animated by illustrations, interested and won by kindness." 



1 8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Fitch says, — 

"No amount of care, inventiveness, and forethought which you 
are able to devote to illustration will be wasted." 

Teachers should remember, all psychologists agree that 
sight takes the lead as the channel of perception. Sully 
says, — 

" Since sight is the most important and the most discriminating of 
the senses, we find that visual percepts are better recalled than any 
others. The capability of representing an object or event some time 
after it has been perceived, depends on the force with which the 
impression was stamped upon the mind. A bright object distinctly 
seen will be recalled better than a dull one obscurely seen. We 
recall the appearance of a place we have actually seen, better than 
one shown to us in a picture, and we recall the picture more easily 
than the words describing the same place." 

Spencer says, — 

" The child's restless observation, instead of being ignored or 
checked, should be diligently ministered to, and made as accurate as 
possible." 

Comenius was perhaps one of the first, two hundred years 
ago, to announce the idea of directing the activity of the 
hands in children, in order to secure attention, awaken 
interest, and so lead to learning. In his " Orbis Pictus " he 
says, " Let things which have to be done be learned by 
doing them." Both Pestalozzi and Froebel insisted upon 
self-activity on the part of the pupil. A harmonious devel- 
opment of the human powers requires not only assimilation, 
but also production. The development of the expressive 
faculties includes the power of giving utterance with the 
organs of speech, and also with the hands. 



THE SIGN FOR THE THING ig 

This hand energy can be utiHzed by the children in 
writing, drawing, moulding, and sewing. How these acquire- 
ments (except the last) are to be employed in geography, 
will be shown in various portions of this book. 

5. Not Easy for tlie Child to classify, analyze, I'oiubine, or dedure. 

To refer our knowledge to general principles, is to classify 
it. Unless our knowledge is classified, it will not be easily 
remembered, any more than, among papers thrown promis- 
cuously together, the desired one can be readily found when 
needed by lawyer, teacher, or merchant. 

Children easily observe, perceive, and remember single 
facts. A large part of the teacher's work is to help the 
child arrange and classify in proper logical order these 
facts, and then deduct general principles therefrom, make 
comparisons, or seek for causes and results. 

6. A Child apt to mistake the Siifii of the Thing for the Thing itself; 
the Word, for the Idea. 

The map of Africa he thinks is Africa ; the crooked line 
on the map is the Niger River. The sign of the fraction is 
the fraction. Even adults make this mistake. Speak the 
word Lena, and ask for the concept formed. In nine cases 
out of ten it will be that of a crooked black mark running 
from south to north on a map. The best way to lead 
children to form the correct concept is by frequently using 
pictures, going to nature, and by frequently asking for the 
meaning of words employed in recitation. 

7. Review and Kepetition necessary in teaching Cliildren. 

This follows as a corollary from the preceding statements. 
Review work should be conducted very diffeiently from 



20 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

advance work. The time is quickened ; only the great 
facts are touched upon ; comparisons are frequent ; the 
pupil must now do the work, instead of the teacher. Topical 
recitation may become frequent. Interest is created by 
new ways of conducting the recitation, competition, allowing 
the children to ask questions, etc. 

OUTLINE 
1. The Teacher. 



Principles. 



1. Ample knowl- 

edge. 

2. Careful prepa- 

ration. 



3. Self-activity. 



4. The right order. 



Application. 



Gives confidence. 

The teacher's ex- 
ample in studying. 
Free exchange. 
The average child. 

The teacher to direct. 



From the particular 
to the general, 
simple to complex, 
etc. 



Authority. 



Ascham, Everett, 
Thring. 



Hamilton, Payne, 
Jacotot, Rous- 
seau. 

Joseph Payne. 



Sources or 
Means. 



Of the world. 



From books and 
nature. 



Landscape, 
products, 
specimens. 



Memory. 



2. The Child. 



1. Observation 

natural and 
strong. 

2. Attention. 



3. Reasoning pow- 
ers weak. 



Cultivated in child- 
hood. 

Cultivated by appeal- 
ing to curiosity, 
sympathy, and ac- 
tivity. 

The child does not 
easily classify, etc. 



Thring. 



Necker. 



Experience. 



The intelligent 
teacher. 



Ear, eye, and 
hand. 



Review, repeti- 
tion. 



CHAPTER II 

AIMS AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY 



The elevation of geography to the place which it ought to hold in 
the school curriculum appears to me a matter of vital moment : first, 
from the value of the subject as a branch of knowledge ; and secondly, 
because it offers a cure for what I conceive to be a radical defect 
in our educational method, namely, the want of any effective disci- 
pline in habits of observation. ... It may be begun on the very 
threshold of school life, and may be pursued in ever-increasing fulness 
of detail and breadth of view up to the end of that time. No other 
subject can for a moment be compared with it in this respect. It 
serves as common ground, on which the claims of literature, history, 
and science may be reconciled. — Archibald Geikie. 

21 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. 
Gage's Life of Ritter. 
Guyot's Earth and Man. 
Huxley's Physiography. 

Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching. 
Marsh's Man and Nature. 
-Physical Geographies, such as those by Geikie, Guyot, 

Johnson, Maury. 
Reclus' The Ocean ; The Earth. 
Ritter's Comparative Geography. 
Ritter's Geographical Studies. 
Science Primers. 
Tyndall's Forms of Water. 



CHAPTER II 

PART I — ITS AIMS 

TWO PURPOSES — QUESTIONS IN TEXT-BOOKS — MISTAKES — CARL RITTER — SOURCES 
OF KNOWLEDGE — DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY 

PART II — ITS IMPORTANCE 

TWO VIEWS — WORTHY OF CAREFUL CONSIDERATION — VAST PROPORTIONS OF PRESENT 
KNOWLEDGE— FORMER KNOWLEDGE — THE HUMBLEST PUPIL AND HUMBOLDT — 
GROWTH OF COMMERCE— CslT.nEKAL CULTURE — GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE — TIME 
WHICH SHOULD BE GIVEN TO GEOGRAPHY 



PART I 
ITS AIMS 

BEFORE we can intelligently discuss methods of teaching 
geography, it will be necessary to consider what geog- 
raphy is, its real aims, the objects to be constantly sought in 
teaching it, and its relative importance to other studies. 

In teaching languages and mathematics there are two 
distinct purposes always in mind, — the practical applica- 
tion of these studies, and the indirect mental discipline 
afforded in studying them ; the second being more important 
than the first. Since geography deals so largely with facts, 
and since it is not so much a science in itself as it is a 
collection of facts and principles taken from various other 
sciences, the main object in teaching it has apparently been, 
in the past, simply to impart, in the shortest possible time, 

23 



24 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

a knowledge of the two least important facts, — namely, 
locality and bare statistics. 

Most of the text-books in geography denominated " brief," 
or " shorter courses," seem to be merely combinations of 
atlases and dictionaries, making the height of mountains, 
the length of rivers, the population of towns, and the 
locality of insignificant capes, more prominent than their 
real value demands ; while descriptions of the greatest 
nations upon the earth, and the grandest phenomena of 
nature, have been condensed or generalized until they are 
as interesting for young minds to read as an old-fashioned 
spelling-book. The sale of these "shorter courses" has 
been immense, because, in the mind of many school-officials, 
a geography is a geography, and the smaller and cheapei- 
the better for his latitude. In thus making geography noth- 
ing more than an ill-sorted collection of dry, unimportant, 
uninteresting facts to be memorized, several serious mistakes 
have been made. 

It is a very serious mistake to suppose that these bare 
facts of geography, such as are contained in the answers to 
nine-tenths of the questions asked in nine-tenths of the 
present text-books, and demanded in nine-tenths of the ex- 
amination-papers, are of any importance after they are 
miemorized. 

Taking the first geography at hand, we open at the Conti- 
nent of Europe, and, selecting almost at random, find in Les- 
son 78 two paragraphs containing the following questions : — 

III. How is Elberfeld situated ? For what is it noted ? For its 
manufactures. How is Hanover situated ? Potsdam ? Stettin ? 
Colberg ? Name tliree Prussian cities on tlie Oder. On what river 
is there another Frankfort in Prussia ? M. 



TEXT-BOOKS 25 

VI. What was the capital of the former kingdom of Poland? 
Warsaw. On what river is Warsaw ? What other place is situated 
on the Vistula? Cracoiu [kra'ko). In what country is Cracow? 
What is the principal branch of the Vistula? What place in Austria 
is on the river Bug ? 

This is a fair specimen of the seven hundred and ninety 
questions asked in this geography upon Europe. How 
many of the answers to those questions are worth remem- 
bering after they are learned ? In another geography, some 
of the most interesting portions in the descriptive chapter 
on Africa are the following : — 

24. Abyssinia lies south-east of Nubia. It is a mountainous 
plateau of great height. The Abyssinians are Christians. 

25. The Sahara is very sparsely inhabited, and contains no vStates. 
The various tribes of Moors, Tuaregs, and Tebus, who inhabit the 
oases, or roam over the country without fixed habitations, are gov- 
erned by chiefs. 

27. Cape Colony, a British possession, lies south of the Orange 
River. The climate is mild. Wheat, wool, and wine are the chief 
products. Cape Town is the capital. 

How useless, nay worse, how cruel, it is to place before 
young, imaginative, active, sight-and-picture-loving children, 
such stupid, good-for-nothing, and uninteresting facts as 
the above, when on every hand can be found so much 
of story, incident, personal adventure, travel, description, 
physical and political information, comparison, and science, 
capable of both interesting and benefiting these same wide- 
awake children ! Yet, in a large number of our text-books on 
geography, similar jejune, unimportant, copula-and-attribute 
statements of the different countries will be found to com- 
pose a great part of the book. 



26 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

It is a mistake to believe that pupils possessing a fair 
degree of common-sense will be especially interested in the 
acquisition of such encyclopaedic information, or will re- 
tain such facts even if once memorized. Scholars who have 
been crammed with such statistical food are usually heard 
to say, " I have been through the geography several times ; 
but I never liked it, and I cannot remember it." 

Another mistake arising from this narrow view of the 
purposes of geography is that it affords to the mind no 
mental discipHne. In the memorizing of dry facts there is 
no appeal to the imagination, to the judgment ; no stimu- 
lating active inquiry ; no presentation of cause and effect ; 
little, if any, growth of the mind produced. Yet geography, 
rightly defined, rightly comprehended, and rightly taught, 
may be made one of the most effective educational instru- 
ments within the reach of grammar-school teachers. 

Geography, although professing to be a description of 
the earth and its inhabitants, has too frequently been treated 
as though it was only the science of the where, map-draw- 
ing its chief glory, and the memory of words its only means 
of acquisition. 

In contrast with this narrow and bigoted idea of geography, 
let us consider the view of Carl Ritter, the greatest of 
modern geographers. He boldly discarded all arbitrary 
geographical systems, and started with Nature herself. By 
Nature he meant the entire creation, hence he commences 
with a simple study of the universe and the solar system. 
He calls attention, in this brief resu7?te, to the fact that the 
earth, when compared with the other planets, is equally 
removed from every extreme. It is neither the largest nor 
the smallest, neither the swiftest nor the slowest, neither the 



RITTER'S IDEAS 27 

warmest nor the coldest. This medium character brings 
the earth into harmony with the system of which it forms 
a part, and indicates, perhaps, that it is the only one in the 
system which could possibly be inhabited by man. It is 
thus especially worthy of being studied in all its features. 

In a geographical point of view, the world becomes the 
common home of our race ; not merely the theatre of the 




Fiff. l. — Carl Ritter. 

operations of Nature, but the arena for the development of 
human life and history. Here the forces and laws of Nature 
are displayed in their variety and independence. It is the 
field of human effort, and the scene of Divine revelation. 
Geography, then, is something more than mere description. 
It should teach the most important relations, and thus be 
considered a science. The earth should be studied in a 
threefold relation, — to the universe, to nature, to history. 
Geography may, then, very properly be defined " as the 
department of science that deals with the globe in all its 



28 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

features, phenomena, and relations, as an independent unit, 
and shows the connection of this unified whole with man, 
and with man's Creator." 

In studying geography we should look upon the world ai 
almost a living thing, having an individuality of its own> 
We should think of it as a seed sown from the hand of 
God, filled with a germinant power of life, transforming and 
making the earth more and more worthy of the noblest 
inhabitants. The science of geography becomes then more 
important than the knowledge of facts, relations more valu- 
able than descriptions. 

The sources of this geographical knowledge are twofold, 
— written accounts of scientific travellers, and continued 
investigations. Personal investigations are necessary to 
understand the investigations of others. " Wherever our 
home is, there lie all the materials which we need for a 
study of the entire globe." Humboldt corroborates this 
view of his friend Ritter when he says, in his " Kosmos," 
" Every httle nook and shaded corner is but a reflection ot 
the whole of Nature." The roaring brook is a type of the 
thundering cataract, the outlines of a little island suggest 
the coast-lines of a continent, a range of hills reveals the 
structure of the loftiest chain of mountains. The study of 
the district about our home also helps us to understand 
foreign lands, by furnishing us with types and units of 
comparison. Herodotus, Polybius, Strabo, Ptolemy, Hum- 
boldt, and Ritter all studied geography in the world of 
nature rather than that of books. 

But no one person can now, as formerly, visit in a lifetime 
all parts of the known world ; hence he must accept, to a 
great extent, the narratives and maps of scientific travellers 



HUMHOLDT, THP: TRAVELLER 



29 



as authoritative. To read the many excellent books recently 
published in English, French, and German, referred to and 
classified in this treatise, will occupy the leisure time of 
most persons for several years. Besides these books of 
travel, the well-informed teacher of geography must know 
something of the various sciences, — the history and growth 




Fig. 2.— Humboldt. 

of nations, commerce, and the laws of interchange of the 
commodities of all climes. 

To perceive more clearly and fully how broad, compre- 
hensive, and inspiring Ritter's idea of geography was, the 
reader is urged carefully to read the Life of Ritter, his 
"Geographical Studies," and "Comparative Geography," as 
well as all the works of Professor Guyot, once the pupil. 



30 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

always the friend. and admirer, of the great German geog- 
rapher. 

Ritter's definition of geography given above would not 
be adapted to grammar school use ; but its essence can be 
expressed in the following brief statement : — 

Geography is a Description of the Surface of the Earth as the 
Home of Man. 

In depicting to children this home of man, so wondrously 
beautiful, so marvellously fitted to supply all of man's wants 
and administer so perfectly to his happiness, geography 
should describe in simple language the remarkable laws bj 
which the earth is governed ; it should show the peculiari- 
ties of its surface, and explain the simple facts of daily 
occurrence, such as winds, rain, ice, and snow, in order thai 
children may have better conceptions of man's surroundings 
and characteristics as affected thereby. It should associate 
towns, rivers, mountains, and natural divisions, with the 
different races of men, with their industries, commerce, and 
occupations. It should enter into the spirit of the present 
age, and make prominent, instead of long lists of names and 
localities, the characteristics of each country, the flora and 
fauna, the architecture, the business enterprises, some of 
the principles of commerce, routes of travel, the growth 
of cities, varieties of scenery and climate, the distribution of 
the three forms of life, the education of the people, and 
the manners and customs of other lands as compared with 
our own. In brief, the principal object to be sought in 
teaching geography is to teach humanity instead of locality. 

When scholars leave the grammar schools they should 
have acquired, in addition to a knowledge of the essential 



THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY 3 I 

facts of geography, the abihty to compare one country, one 
zone, one river, with another ; to classify and arrange addi- 
tional facts ; and above all, they should have acquired a 
taste for good reading, a love for travel, some knowledge 
of the best books of travel, and of the world's wonders and 
beauties ; in short, what we may appropriately call geo- 
graphical culture. 



PART II 
ITS RELATIVE IMPORTANCE 



Upon this subject there are two extreme views. Many 
look upon geography as worthy of very little regard, atten- 
tion, or time ; while a few give it so much prominence that 
it overshadows all the other studies. Neither view is in 
accordance with a true harmony of grammar-school studies. 
These enthusiastic lovers of this study are so rare that there 
is no need of taking time and space to discuss their posi- 
tion. The former, more numerous and more tenacious of 
their views, lost all respect for geography, in many cases, 
through the wretched methods employed in teaching the 
subject by their early instructors. Persons holding such 
views are not likely to succeed in, or to enjoy, the teaching 
of this study. To them we especially address ourselves in 
this chapter. 

Many of our ideas of geography have come down to us 
direct from the Middle Ages.' Whatever the true relation 
of this study to the other studies may have been in early 

• The description of the grand divisions, given in most geographies to-day, 
follows the same order in which Strabo (24 A.D.) set the pattern. 



32 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

times, geography to-day is certainly worthy of the most 
careful consideration on the part of teachers and school 
authorities, being itself a pee?- among the other studies. We 
place geography in this position for the following reasons : — 

\. Because our Present Knowledge of the World, i.e., Modern Geog- 
raphy, has at Length grown to such Vast Proportions. 

To realize this, we must glance at the history of geo- 
graphical development. Geography is a comparatively mod- 
ern study. It began in ancient times with the world of 
nature rather than books. There was no geographical lit- 
erature when , the Phoenicians held undisputed sway over 
the known world, then bordering the Mediterranean Sea. 
Phcenician boys were not greatly troubled about this study. 
From Himilco, about 700 B.C., to Stanley, is twenty-five 
hundred years in time, but an immeasurable epoch in 
advancement. For our purpose, this time may be properly 
divided into three unequal epochs. 

Herodotus, on account of his brief wanderings, became, 
444 B.C., the first critical geographer of the Greeks. Strabo 
travelled from the Caucasus to the Rhone, and from the 
Alps to Ethiopia, and for this was looked upon as a modern 
Humboldt. His wonderful knowledge enabled him to write 
a book, and that book was the first geography of which we 
have any account. In it he expresses his firm conviction 
that the Caspian Sea was the limit of the earth to the north. 
When Ptolemy lived at Alexandria, about the middle of the 
second century, he possessed, with all his knowledge, fewer 
correct ideas of the outlines of Scotland and the real posi- 
tion of Ireland than a child does to-day in a Boston primary 
school. The world was then divided into two parts, — the 



HISTORY or GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 33 

kno7vn and the unknown. The equator was not crossed 
till 147 1. Marco Polo was the Bayard Taylor of the Mid- 
dle Ages. Prince Henry, the Navigator (d. 1460), greatly 
enlarged the knowledge of the world, and appropriately 
closed this epoch. 

Columbus, with his brilliant discoveries, opened the second 
epoch. His grand contributions to geographical knowledge 
were supplemented by Vasco da Gama, the Cabots, Cabral, 
Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Cartier, Davis, Frobisher, Magellan, 
and a host of others ; and yet none of these men could 
have passed a Boston diploma-examination upon geography, 
because so much of the world was then still unknown. In 
the seventeenth century, Hudson's discoveries carried geo- 
graphical knowledge still farther from the Mediterranean. 
Australia was added to the list of continents. New Zealand 
and Van Diemen's Land were discovered and named. At 
the close of this century, La Salle descended the Mississippi. 
Li the eighteenth century new portions of the world were 
made known by Cook's three celebrated voyages, and the 
labors in Africa of Bruce and Mungo Park. At the end of 
this second epoch, geographical knowledge embraced a 
large part of the inhabited world, but there remained por- 
tions of continents and more distant regions still largely 
unknown. 

These unknown regions were situated principally in trop- 
ical Africa and the frigid zones. Through the noble and 
heroic efforts of Livingstone, Burton, Grant, Speke, Baker, 
Miss Tinn^, Cameron, Stanley, and many others, the long- 
debated problems of the hydrographic systems of Central 
Africa have been forever settled. The Mountains of the 
Moon no longer cross the continent from east to west, as 



34 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

in our boyish da5's. The Nile, Zambesi, and Congo have 
each a source and a course as well as a mouth. All we 
need to know about the polar regions has been revealed to 
us in the explorations and expeditions during the last forty 
years under Kane, Ross, Belcher, McClintock, McClure, 
Dr. Hayes, Capt. Hall, Capt. Nares, Professor Nordenskjold, 
De Long's party, and Lieut. Greely. The humblest pupil 
in our common schools is now taught more facts connected 
with these regions than the great Humboldt knew at the 
time of his death. The surface of the land and water 
masses have been now so thoroughly explored that there 
remains only the bottoms of the oceans for men to investi- 
gate, and these sections are now being carefully studied. 
(See "Voyage of the Challenger.") Is not a study with 
such an historical growth as this, and with so extensive a 
field for consideration, an important one ? 

2. Because of the Recent Rapid Growth of Commerce. 

Steamships and railroads have brought the nations into 
closer relations with each other. The inventions of the 
telegraph and telephone have made business world-wide. 
At the beginning of this century there was little international 
communication or commercial enterprise. Nations lived 
by themselves and for themselves. The improvements in 
travel, the reduction of postage, the laying of cables, the 
opening of the ports in China and Japan, have so stimulated 
and enlarged business enterprises, that many firms now have 
branch houses in half a dozen cities belting the world. 
Steamships plough all seas, and the productions and the 
manufactures of the antipodes are quickly and regularly 
brought to our markets. A trip round the world is no 



GENERAL CULTURE 



35 



longer a wonderful feat. The United States is so situated, 
from its position, its natural products, and its skilled labor, 
as to become, of a certainty, deeply interested financially in 
this world-wide commerce between the civilized and the 
savage and half-civilized nations of the world. Hence, for a 
child to graduate from our schools, and not to carry away 
a good geographical training, will be every year more and 
more a disgrace and a lifelong regret. 

3. Because it affords such a Splendid Opportunity for General Culture. 

Not even history can claim for itself a wider field of 
thought and investigation, or one more useful, than geog- 
raphy when taught in the proper spirit and with the proper 
purpose in view. Geography thus taught will introduce the 
child in a pleasant way to many elementary facts in history, 
astronomy, physics, physical geography, geology, mineralogy, 
botany, meteorology, zoology, and ethnography, although 
the names of these studies may possibly remain unknown to 
the young student. Other studies are more or less special 
and restrictive ; this study is all-embracing, universal, and 
it is very properly called " the all-science." Geography, 
taught topically, will give at the same time instruction to 
pupils in spelling, dictation, writing, oral lessons, composition, 
drawing, and reading. 

4. Lastly, Because of the Present Growth of General Intelligence. 

General intelligence is the result of travel and reading. 
Geography is a necessary auxiliary to both. Hundreds of 
men and women travel for pleasure and business to-day, 
where ten travelled fifty years ago. Thousands of books 
are published and read to-day, where twenty were read half 
a century ago. But the growth in circulation of the modern 



36 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

magazine and newspaper is the best evidence of the growth 
of general intelligence among the masses. These magazines 
and newspapers not only constantly refer to the most inter- 
esting facts of geography, and the most distant parts of the 
world, but they have a special department devoted to this 
subject, so great is the demand of the public for correct 
information on these subjects. The Americans are the 
greatest readers in the world. The ever-increasing influence 
of the magazine and newspaper among us demands that 
more and more shall be accomplished in our schools in 
geography. Any study with such a history, so closely con- 
nected with the great commercial enterprises and business 
spirit of the age, capable of administering so largely to the 
general culture of the pupils, so practically useful, is exceed- 
ingly important, and it is doubtful if arithmetic even can 
more than hold its own by its side. 

Yet there are educationists who believe that " less time 
should be given to geography." Since the introduction of 
oral lessons, drawing, and music into our schools, the amount 
of time given to some of the studies has, of a necessity, 
been reduced. The special study usually selected for this 
curtailment has been geography. In Boston the time given 
to geography, according to the supervisor's course of studies/ 
is half the amount given to arithmetic, two-thirds of what 
is given to language, and nearly the same as is devoted to 
oral instruction. In many schools the amount of time is rel- 
atively less than this. But if the study is to-day as important 
as we have attempted to show, does it not follow, without 
further argument, as a corollary, that geography should re- 
ceive in the grammar-school course as much time afid atten- 
tion as any other one study, excepting perliaps arithmetic ? 



CHAPTER III 

WEONG METHODS vs. THE TOPICAL METHOD 



There was an undeniable gain when exact method was made an 
essential part of a teacher's professional preparation. 

Prof. W. H. Payne. 

37 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Brooks's Normal Methods of Teaching. 
Currie's Common School Education. 
Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. 
Geographical Text-Books. 
Hopkins's How Shall My Child be Taught? 
Hopkins's Educational Psychology. 
Kiddle's How to Teach. 
Swett's Methods of Teaching. 
Gordy and Twitchell's Pathfinder in American 
History, 

38 



CHAPTER III 



PART I— WRONG METHODS 



THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD — USELESS QUESTIONS — UNNECESSARY MEMORIZING — MIS- 
TAKES — THE CRAMMING METHOD — NO-STUDY METHOD 



PART II — BETTER METHODS 

THE TOPICAL METHOD — TOPICS FOR THE FIRST TWO YEARS — TOPICS FOR THE THIRD 
AND FOURTH YEARS — TOPICS FOR THE FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS — PRACTICAL 
SUGGESTIONS 

PART I 
WRONG METHODS 

IT is customary to pull down the old house before building 
up the new one. Following the same order, we design to 
point out, first, some of the most faulty methods of teach- 
ing geography, in order to prepare the way for a better 
understanding and appreciation of the right method subse- 
quently recommended. To call attention to a poor method, 
is, in many cases, sufficient to lead to its abandonment. 
Some of the most prominent of these wrong methods will 
now be referred to, and their weaknesses pointed out. 

1. The Text-Book Method. 

The poor teaching of geography, and the wretched results 
so frequently obtained, can, in nine cases out of ten, be 
traced to the exclusive employment of the text-book. This 
slavish following of the book, both in precise order of sub- 

39 



40 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

jects and in its entirety, was perhaps more common twenty- 
live years ago than to-day. Some teachers have emancipated 
themselves, and are happy in their freedom. This method 
made it very easy for the teacher, as far as instruction went, 
and very hard for the children. Result, — most scholars 
came to dislike geography more than any other study. 
Since then text-books have improved, and pupils using the 
better books are so much the better taught. Methods of 
teaching, however, have improved more than text-books ; 
and still hundreds of teachers are assigning lessons on the 
old plan, and reaping the harvest of unsatisfactory results. 
The principal of a large grammar school in this State recently 
assigned to his graduating class for a home-lesson three pages 
of the text-book, containing descriptions and map-questions 
in reference to nine of the Central States. The scholars 
were told " to learn carefully the entire lesson." To do so 
required them to learn the answers to two hundred and 
eighty-seven questions. Many of the statements were no 
more interesting to a Massachusetts boy than the following, 
which is one of the two hundred and eighty-seven answers : 
" Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Racine, and Jonesville are thriving 
towns." These are some of the questions : " Keweenaw Bay 
is a part of what lake?" "Where is Kaskaskia situated ? " 
We are afraid such extreme foolishness and such cruelty are 
not uncommon. 

In Germany we understand the only text-book used in 
geography is the atlas, the teacher supplying orally all the 
necessary information. With superior teachers such a 
method has many advantages, but in most schools a good 
text-book is a great blessing to teachers and scholars. A 
fact stated in a text-book is just as important and useful as 



PROMINENT MISTAKES 4I 

if stated orally by the teacher, and much time and strength 
have been saved to both parties. But geographical facts 
seem dead to an ordinary child when met with for the first 
time on the printed page, unless the living teacher breathes 
into them the breath of life by related incident, explanation, 
anecdote, comparison, or topical arrangement. The judi- 
cious use of a good text-book we believe to be better than 
the German method. 

Teachers, in following the text-book method, invariably 
fall into three prominent mistakes, viz., — 

{a) Unnecessary Memorizing. — When scholars are asked 
to commit to memory page after page of dry, uninteresting 
descriptions, bare statistics, and the locality of thousands 
of places not associated with events or persons, the work is 
exceedingly irksome. It is about as pleasant and profit- 
able as it would be for a teacher to memorize consecutive 
pages of Webster's Dictionary. No teacher ever asked 
scholars to learn the dictionary by heart ; and yet our 
geographies are to the young mind what a dictionary is 
to an adult mind, — a collection of empty facts, some- 
times bound up with pictures, valuable for reference, but 
neither attractive to read nor to memorize. When the 
scholar has committed to memory all these facts found in 
most geographies, of what use will two-thirds of them ever 
be to him ? The main facts of geography must be learned, 
but there is a vast saving of time and force when the teacher 
bears in mind that two associated facts are much more easily 
remembered than one isolated fact. 

{b) The second mistake consists in requiring scholars 
to learn largely from the questions given in the text-book. 
Scholars taught in this way do not learn to observe and 



42 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

think for thepiselves. Ask these scholars some practical, 
common-sense question, as, Why New Orleans is situated 
near the mouth of the Mississippi River? or, How bananas 
grow? and they are dumbfounded. A class taught by 
this method was recently asked if there was any current 
in a river. Only one boy knew, and he said, " No." In 
following the printed questions, the scholars rely upon 
them, and do not learn to talk or write connectedly about 
a subject. 

(c) The third mistake is in making maps and map-ques- 
tions too prominent. In some schools the chief end of 
geographical study seems to be to acquire facility in drawing 
maps. This is making a means an end. Scholars are to 
be taught through the map, and not for the sake of the map. 
Asking too many map-questions is a more frequent mistake. 
One geography (medium size) in our possession contains 
seven hundred and ninety map-questions upon Europe, 
and only two hundred and twenty-seven questions on the 
descriptive part. Another, by a different author, a revised 
edition, contains six hundred and eighty majD-questions on 
Europe. 

A teacher near Boston recently asked his second class, 
in the course of four monthly examinations upon Europe, 
four hundred and fifty map-questions. Few of these locali- 
ties remain fixed in the child's mind. How much wiser for 
the teacher to spend one-sixth as much time on locality; 
and more on surface, climate, commerce, routes of travel, 
manners and customs, works of art, education, and litera- 
ture ! Locality must be taught to some extent by itself; but, 
as far as possible, it should be taught through association. 
When pupils become interested in an event, a person, or a 



WRONG METHODS 43 

remarkable phenomenon, they easily remember the locality 
mentioned. The narrative of the "Jeannette" fixes in 
mind the locality of the New Siberia Islands and the Lena 
Delta. 

Another vicious and frequently employed method is 

2. The Craniiiiiii&: Metliod. 

Whenever examinations become too prominent, or teachers 
are judged by results alone, as in some of our largest cities, 
there is a temptation to cram ; but it is just as detrimental 
to pupil and teacher in geography as in any other study, 
and for the same reasons. Isolated, disconnected facts are 
taught without regard to cause and effect, or order of 
arrangement. The teacher, instead of studying Guyot and 
Ritter, studies old examination-papers. The end and ob- 
ject of study seems to the scholar to be, not to learn for 
the sake of knowledge, but for the sake of passing certain 
examinations. The after pleasures, benefits, and advantages, 
as well as present mental growth, are all made subordinate 
to a temporary success. The moral effect upon the pupils is 
far from elevating. They soon learn from the teacher to 
spend more thought and time in guessing what the questions 
will be in the coming examination, than in learning a great 
law of nature, or the facts in the climate of a great country. 
The two methods already mentioned are very apt to go 
hand in hand. 

But a worse method even than these is what may be 
called 

3. The No-Study Method. 

It affects both teachers and pupils, but not always both 
classes at the same time. Many teachers believe that 



44 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

geography (and spelling) can be taught without preparation 
on the part of the teacher. The usual results obtained in 
this way are its condemnation. Let a teacher make a 
thorough study of some country like Australia, and then 
notice what a difference it will make in the pleasure of 
teaching, and the interest awakened among the pupils. 

No teacher can awaken an interest among his pupils if 
he possess none himself; he cannot be interested in a 
subject or a countiy, if he knows little or nothing about it, 
any more than he could in a person of whom he was 
ignorant. On the other hand, it is equally bad for the 
teacher to make great preparation for the lesson, recite it 
to the pupils, and ask and expect them to do nothing but 
listen. All should be required to study. Even beginners 
in this study, who are taught orally, shown pictures, and 
taken on imaginary journeys, should also have something to 
learn, to remember, and to recite. This may be written on 
the blackboard, if text-books are wanting, and learned 
therefrom by the pupils. 



PART 11 
BETTER METHODS 



According to the classification given by Professor Brooks 
in his excellent book entitled " Normal Methods of Teach- 
ing," there are four correct methods of teaching the noble 
science of geography, (i) The Analytic Method, which 
begins with the world as a whole, and passes by successive 
divisions down to the State, county, town, or city in which 



VARIOUS METHODS 45 

we reside ; (2) The Synthetic, which begins at the smaller 
division, as a schoolhouse, yard, town, county, etc., and 
passes by successive enlargements to the surface of the 
world ; (3) The hiductive, which begins with the particular 
facts of science, and passes to their ckssification into sys- 
tems ; and (4) The Deductive, which seizes upon the laws or 
general characteristics of a group of facts, and passes to the 
particulars embraced under these laws. This last method 
is more than analytic. It not only goes from the whole 
to its parts, but from the general to the particular. It is 
not our purpose to discuss now the relative value, or the 
proper employment, of these methods. We seek the more 
practical. 

Whether the method of teaching the whole subject of 
geography be analytic, synthetic, or inductive, we recom- 
mend, in place of following the text-book, 

THE TOPICAL METHOD OF STUDY 

We do this with much confidence, after years of experi- 
ment and diligent search for light on this subject, because 
it is the best method thus far found by which to create un- 
bounded interest among pupils in this study, and because it 
enables the teacher to instruct with satisfaction and pleasure. 
When the carpenter builds a house he finds it necessary to 
have the architect furnish him with certain plans for his 
guidance and constant inspection. In like manner the 
teacher and his pupils, in following through the delightful 
paths of the topical study of geography, will require a care- 
fully and properly arranged list of topics for direction and 
help, and also to prevent wandering and loss of time. 

Excellent sets of topics for geographical study are given 



, Comparison throughout 



46 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

in numerous educational works. One of the best and mosf 
comprehensive has been arranged by Professor Guyot, and 
can be obtained from his pubhshers. 

Classes just commencing the study need a very simple 
and short arrangement of topics. The following will prob- 
ably be found difficult and extended enough for beginners. 

SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. I. 

{For the first two years of study.) 

1. Position on Globe. 

2. Names, Capitals, and Principal Towns. 

3. Mountains. 

4. Rivers, and other Bodies of Water. 

5. Climate. 

f Vegetable. 

6. Life. \ Animal. 

[ Human. 

7. Productions. 

8. Journeys. 

Such a list as the above is well adapted to the pupils 
during their first two years of geographical study. As they 
advance, a more extended list of topics will be needed, and 
the next schedule may be employed. 

SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. II. 

{For the third and fourth years of study.) 

I. Position, Outline, Progressive Map, etc, 

ii. Highlands. 
2. Lowlands. 
3. Profile. 
I, 4. Progressive Map. 

3. Drainage. 

4. Political Divisions. 

fi. Border Waters. 
., . , ^. . . ,2. Projections. 

5. Natural Divisions < ., 

3. Isthmuses. 

t 4. Islands. 



SCHEDULES OK TOPICS 47 

C I. Causes. 

6. Climate -Jz. Peculiarities. 

(. 3. Healthfulness. 
f I. Vegetable. 

7. Life s2. Animal. 



V 3. Human. 



8. Productions, 

g. Exports. 

10. Imports. 

11. Prominent Cities. 

12. Journeys. 

13. Comparisons. Throughout on every topic. 



In teaching by topics, the globe and the map are in 
constant requisition. Teachers and pupils frequently work 
together with open books. The young scholars, with a 
little help, can find the position of the country on the 
globe ; its direction from our own ; its comparative size ; 
the political divisions ; principal towns, mountains, rivers, 
and various bodies of water. If the children learn to name 
the various political divisions, towns, mountains, etc., in 
some particular order, — as, for instance, the countries of 
South America thus : Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, Brazil, 
Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentine Republic (Patagonia), Chili, 
Bolivia, Peru, and Fxuador, — it will greatly assist them in 
remembering the locality of the places, and turn the acqui- 
sition of these facts from drudgery to pleasure. 

In the last four topics, more assistance from the teacher 
will be needed. Nothing will give greater zest to the work 
than to have the scholars make a progressive map as they 
proceed with their study, gradually filling it up. As fast as 
facts are learned, they are written or printed upon the map. 
(See p. 114.) This is a most effective and delightful way 
to impress the lesson upon the memory. If the scholars 
are too small and inexperienced in drawing, to sketch a fair 



48 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



outline of the country, the teacher should supply them with 
prepared outlines, or models of the outline cut from paste- 
board. (See p. 87.) 

We have used for years, with pupils averaging from thirteen 
to fourteen years of age, the following list of topics ; and we 
have never found it too complicated or too long for our 
purpose. 

SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. III. 

{For the fifth and sixth years of study.) 

1. Brief History.' 

2. Striking Characteristics. * 

f I. Hemispheres. 

2. Zones. 

3. Latitude and Longitude. 

4. Shape. 

5. Absolute and Comparative Size. 

6. Diagram, Outline — Progressive Map. 

1. Ranges. 

2. Separating. 

3. Slope. 
r I. Mountain , 4. Direction. 

Systems. I 5. Peaks. 

I 6. Heights. 
r 1. Highlands. s 1 7. Volcanoes. 

[ 8. Analogies. 



3. Position, etc. 



< 



4. Surface 



2. Lowlands. 



Plateaus. 
Deserts. 
! I. Plains. 



2. Lowlands on Coast. 



5. Drainage , 



3. Draw Profile. 

4. Draw and Print on Progressive Map. 

1. Water Partings. 



2. River Systems. 



1. Source. 

2. Course. 

3. Length. 

4. Navigable. 

5. Branches. 
(, 6. Peculiarities. 



3. Lakes. 

4. Draw and Print Names on Map. 



' If the pupils have never studied the country before, topics No. i and 2 may be 
used at the end, as a review, the pupils to do most of the work. 



SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. NO. III. 



49 



6. Political Divisions . 



1. Named in Order. 

2. Capitals. 

3. Principal Towns. 

4. Print Names on Map. 



7. Natural Divisions . 



I. Border Waters. 



2. Projections, etc. 

3. Isthmuses. 

4. Print Names. 



• I. Causes. 



8. Climate • 



g. Life 



2. Peculiarities. 

3. Healthfulness. 

1. Vegetable. 

2. Animal. 



3. Human. 



II. Commerce 



Foreign 

or 

Domestic. 



Oceans. 
Seas. 
Gulfs. 
Bays. 

I 5. Straits, 
f I. Peninsulas. 
' 2. Capes. 
L 3. Islands. 



f I. Latitude. 

I 2. Elevation, 

j 2. Mountains, 

j 4. Slope. 

■^ 5. Winds. 

6. Moisture. 

7. Currents. 

8. Surface. 



10. Productions. — Printed on Progressive Map. 



12. Prominent Cities. 

13. Journeys. 

14. Comparisons. — Throughout on every Topic. 



1. Races. 

2. Population. 

3. Occupation. 

4. Language. 

5. Manners and Customs. 

f Literature. 

6. Education, -i Science. 

i. Arts. 

7. Religion. 

8. Government. 



1. E.\ ports. 

2. Imports. 

3. Commercial Towns. 

4. Routes of J I. Land. 
Commerce. [ 2. Water. 

5. Peculiarities, etc. 



5© METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

As a class advances in the topical study of geography, 
the pupils become more and more delighted with this 
method of learning about different countries, and more and 
more anxious to enter still deeper into the study. This is 
done in No. III. by enlarging the subdivisions of the schedule 
so as to enter more fully into the details of each topic. 

In the schedule mentioned above, great prominence is 
given to surface, because an accurate understanding of this 
subject furnishes the key to the understanding of the next 
subject, drainage^ and also explains many facts connected 
with the climate, the life, the productions, the occupations, 
and even the .locality, of the cities. Hence the natural order 
is preserved by placing surface before these other subjects. 
No two teachers would probably agree in reference to the 
best order of arrangements for some of the less prominent 
topics, such as political divisions, striking characteristics, 
natural divisions, journeys, etc. No one particular arrange- 
ment of these subjects is essential for success in employing 
the topical method. Political divisions may be learned be- 
fore surface, or afterward, as the teacher prefers. Com- 
parison, in our schedule, stands at the end of the list ; but 
the wide-awake teacher will make all possible comparison 
throughout the study of the country. Any teacher, after 
these hints and illustrations, can arrange for himself a set of 
topics which will probably be better adapted for his own use 
than any list made by another. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

When a teacher begins the topical method with a class 
which has been accustomed to study almost entirely from 
the text-book, he will find it necessary to proceed very 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 5 1 

slowly at first, because this way of preparing lessons is so 
strange, and different from memorizing the printed page. 
The pupils are at first obliged to learn both the geographical 
facts, and also to learn how and where to find these facts. 

It has been our custom when taking up the topical method 
with a class unaccustomed to its use, but which has studied 
geography for several years, to have the class supplied with 
large blank-books, and then to say to them, " Let us en- 
deavor to make a new and better geography of North 
America (for instance), than the one printed in the text- 
book recommended by the committee." All are delighted 
with the plan, and enter into its accomplishment with wide- 
awake zeal, so happy are they to do something. At first, the 
teacher will need to go over each lesson carefully with 
the class, giving assistance wherever and whenever needed, 
which, by the way, can be done only after careful preparation. 
Remember, however, never to tell a fact which can be found 
out from map, picture, or table of statistics, in the dictionary 
or gazetteer. 

e. g., Instead of telling the class much about the surface 
of South America, show them a physical map of the same, 
or better, a raised map, or better still, make them a sand 
or clay map ; and as they look at it, ask them questions, or 
impart information about the highlands, plains, mountains, 
peaks, etc. But the names of the mountains, the peaks, the 
directions of the mountain-chains, etc., can be learned from 
the map, by the use of the eyes. Again, instead of telling 
them what capes to learn, or asking the silly questions 
printed in most geographies about the capes, direct the 
pupils to make out a list of the most prominent capes, writ- 
ing them down in order, beginning at some fixed point, like 



$2 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

the north-west corner on the map, and going eastward ; then 
call upon the dullest pupil to read his list, and by and by 
the smartest pupil to add, or correct mistakes, till the revised 
list is prepared to be copied into the blank-book. Then the 
class can be drilled in learning these names by asking pupils 
to recite them orally, name them as another pupil points 
them out from the wall-map, write them from memory, or 
write them on the outline-map. 

If the teacher has prepared himself as he should, with 
several other geographies, different maps, a scrap-book, a 
few pictures, books of travel, specimens, etc. (see Six Years' 
Course in Chaps. XL, XII.), he will be ready to help any 
discouraged pupil by putting into his hand, at the right 
moment, the right book, page, piece of paper, picture, or 
specimen, or to read some additional piece of information 
just when the minds of all are anxious to receive it. 

After a few lessons, the pupils will begin to delight in this 
manly, self-reliant method of study, and before even the first 
grand division is finished, the class will surprise the teacher 
by the amount of work they can easily do without help. 
The second grand division will be almost entirely prepared 
by them, provided the teacher can supply the necessary 
books, etc. ; and as fast as prepared, it will be learned so 
as never to be forgotten, while the learning of it will be as 
enjoyable as a favorite game. For additional practical 
suggestions in using the topical method, see Chaps. XIII., 
XIV., and XV., on North America. 



CHAPTER IV 

ADVANTAGES OF THE TOPICAL METHOD 



The rote-system, like other systems of its age, made more of the 
forms and symbols than of the things symbolized. To repeat the 
words correctly was every thing, to understand the meaning nothing; 
and thus the spirit was sacrificed to the letter. — Herbert Spencer. 

53 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Brooks's Normal Methods. 

Carver's How to Teach Geography. 

Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. 

DeGraff's Development Lessons. 

Geikie's Methods in Geography. 

Hewitt's Pedagogy. 

Hopkins's Educational Psychology. 

Parker's Talks on Teaching. 

Partridge's Quincy Methods. 

Thring's Theory and Practice. 

Wickersham's Methods. 

Keltie's Applied Geography. 

54 



CHAPTER IV 
ADVANTAGES OF THE TOPICAL METHOD 

DISADVANTAGES — FIRST ADVANTAGE, REQUIRES CAREFUL PREPARATION — THE BEST 
PREPARATION — ILLUSTRATION — UNBOUNDED ENTHUSIASM — STUDYING AND THINK- 
ING FOR THEMSELVES — EXTRACTS — OTHER MATTERS TAUGHT — STANDS THE TEST 
OF EXAMINATIONS — QUESTIONS — PARTICULAR TEST — MAPS — PRACTICAL SUGGES- 
TIONS — A READING HOUR — SUBJECTS ON WHICH THE PUPILS READ. 

WHEN, sixty years ago, Ritter began his great work in 
geography referred to in Chap. H., he found his 
fellow-teachers slaves to the text-book, and teaching a lifeless 
mass of facts about countries and places : he introduced the 
topical method of study, comparison, classification, original 
investigation, and observation of Nature herself. Guyot in 
a measure has done for America what Ritter did for Ger- 
many. Both men deserve the earnest study of earnest 
geographical teachers. 

The alleged disadvantages of the topical method of teach- 
ing geography are so insignificant that, in passing, only one 
need be noticed. It is said that this method requires more 
time than the question-and-answer method. This is usually 
true of the first country taught in this way, because the 
method is new to the scholar, and the amount of information 
given is so much greater than in any text-book ; but subse- 
quently there is considerable saving in time effected by the 
new method. An enthusiastic teacher could give to the 
topical teaching of a country an almost unlimited amount 

55 



56 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

of time. The writer has known two months to be thus spent 
on one continent, the interest of the class never flagging for 
a moment. On the other hand, he has known two conti- 
nents Uke North and South America reviewed, from the 
work- of previous classes, in six lessons, and at the end 
the scholars showed more geographical knowledge of the 
countries than they would have exhibited after a month's 
tedious study of the text-book. 

When the amount of information retained by the pupils 
is considered, the topical method, even at first, is the more 
economical. When the amount taught mid retained is con- 
sidered, the topical method, as soon as it becomes under- 
stood by the class, requires far less time than the question- 
and-answer method. This objection is therefore of no 
weight. 

The advantages of the topical method, like the beauties 
of Nature, are new and fresh every morning. Some of them 
can only be mentioned, and only need to be mentioned to 
be appreciated by those who have taught in this way, 
although they may have little influence over the doubtful 
and conservative. The topical method gives the teacher 
employing it the greatest pleasure and satisfaction in his 
work : it lifts him above dull drudgery and mere routine, into 
the upper, crystalline atmosphere of intellectual enjoyment 
and self-satisfying work. 

Our own experience with this method of teaching has 
emphasized the following as the most important advantages 
arising from its employment. 



CAREKUF. PRICPAkATlON 57 

1. The Topical Method retjiiiros Careful Preparation on the Part of 
Teachers as well as Pupils. 

A large part of the poor teaching in the world arises from 
lack of preparation by the teacher. In the topical method 
the teacher undertakes to supplement the book, encourages 
questions, and stands ready to answer them. He must then 
come to the lesson full of the subject, and overflowing with 
the freshest thought and the most recent facts and theories. 
To find this knowledge he must search through numerous 
books, magazines, and newspapers, cutting and collecting 
the wheat as he goes, searching for cause and effect, making 
comparisons and classifications as the subject suggests. 

The best preparation for teaching geography is, of course, 
travel. Humboldt and Ritter were the greatest geogra- 
phers ; they were also great travellers. \ teacher who has 
been "abroad," -'out West," "down South," or even to 
Montreal or to the White Mountains, will teach with much 
greater success than one who always stays near home. A 
study of nature, even about one's own locality, is suggestive 
and important. The salaries of most teachers, however, 
are too small to allow extensive travelling, and hence the 
majority of the fraternity must rely upon the eyes of others 
for their knowledge of the facts of this science. 

Books of travel, copiously illustrated, are now published 
in reference to nearly every part of the world. They can 
be purchased by teachers, or clubs of teachers, a few at a 
time, if not accessible in public libraries. An extended list 
of such books, and also books of geographical science, will 
be found in Chap. XX. 

Among books of daily necessity, both for teachers and 



58 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

scholars, we place books of reference, such as Lippincott's 
Gazetteer ; Browne's Manual of Commerce ; Appletons' and 
Chambers's Encyclopaedias ; Richardson's School Manual 
of Modern Geography, London ; Johnston's Descriptive 
Geography; Compendium of Geography and Travel (6 v.), 
published by Stanford ; common-school geographies, the 
best of which are Guyot's, Swinton's, Harper's, Appletons', 
Barnes's, Our World No. 2, and McNally's ; and geograph- 
ical readers such as Scnbner's for young scholars, and 
Johonnot's for more advanced scholars. 

The successful teacher must not only know where all 
these geographical facts can be found, but he must have 
them at his command so that he can stand before the map 
or the blackboard, and conduct the recitation, if need be, 
with little or no reference to books. To do this requires 
tact, judgment, and, beyond all else, untiring energy and 
enthusiasm. If it were proper, the writer could give the 
names of a score or more of teachers who have so high an 
ideal of the nobleness and possibilities of geography that 
they daily make such preparation, and daily reap the pleas- 
ure and satisfaction of seeing their pupils really enjoy the 
geographical recitation-hour. 

One of these cases is especially worthy of mention. The 
school is situated in a New-England city at some distance 
from Boston. The teacher has a class corresponding in 
advancement to a third class in a Boston grammar school. 
It is composed principally of the " foreign element," children 
from poor, miserable homes, without books or the comforts 
of civilized society. A more difficult class of children to 
interest in geography could not be selected ; yet they have 
a most remarkable knowledge of, and love for, this study. 



TEACHING BY I'ICTURES 59 

This wonderful interest in a subject frequently deemed the 
dryest, is owing of course to their teacher, and what he has 
done for them. 

He has prepared, at great expense of time and money, a 
solar camera and some four hundred valuable transparent 
pictures, a few of which, at a lesson, are thrown upon a 
large screen in front of the scholar, and carefully explained. 
Around these pictures are grouped the great facts of geog- 
raphy ; not the little details of locality and statistics, but 
the soulful facts of comparative and physical geography. 
These pictures are of the same quality and excellence as 
those used by Messrs. Stoddard and French in their high- 
toned entertainments. The pictures are shown, on an 
average, about once a week. Think of the influence upon 
such a class of pupils, of seeing week after week the most 
beautiful pictures that art and nature can produce. The 
unquestionable success of this experiment shows the power 
of pictures combined with study, in the schoolroom, to 
awaken an interest and impress facts, and warrants a similar 
use by combined bodies of teachers (to reduce expense), 
in other parts of the country. 

2. The Topical Method creates Unbounded Enthusiasm among 
the Pnpils. 

The dull, sleepy boy wakes up ; the most indifferent girl 
is anxious to learn in this new way. There is something 
for the fingers to do, as well as the eyes, in copying into 
the blank-books topics and information given. Each pupil 
becomes desirous to contribute information required from 
newspapers, from other books, or from parents. Scholars no 
longer dislike this noble study. On the contrary, they wish 



6o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

to Study it more than its proportional time. The teacher 
sometimes is actually obliged to check their enthusiasm, 
and remind the class that there are other studies of impor- 
tance besides geography. 

3. The Topical Method is Philosophical and Natural. 

It appeals to the understanding, as well as to the memory. 
It begins with the known, and proceeds to the unknown. 
Subjects are taken up in their natural order. Position is 
studied before surface ; elevation before drainage ; climate 
before production. Children are pleased with comparisons 
and sharp contrasts ; they ask for cause and effect ; they are 
hero-worshippers, fond of personal adventure. The topical 
method naturally leads them to such information. 

4. It encourages Pupils to study and think for themselves. 

This is perhaps one of its greatest advantages. In fol- 
lowing the text-books the scholar simply commits to mem- 
ory the words, with little regard to their meaning. When 
studying topically he memorizes ideas and facts which he 
is to clothe in his own language. He becomes a searcher 
and discoverer of truth. He comes in contact with other 
books, and soon dispels the foolish delusion that his own 
particular text-book is the only book in the world containing 
geographical information. 

The difference between the two methods is well shown 
by the following illustrations from school life. In a certain 
school in this city, the " fourth class," which had studied 
geography for two and a half years, was taught South 
America by the topical method. After the work of teach- 
ing was finished, the scholars were requested to write what 



THE TOPICAL METHOD 6l 

they knew about that country. Below we give two extracts 
from the papers then prepared. These extracts are given 
just as written by the scholars, without any corrections. 

SOUTH AMERICA (a). 

South America is a great peninsula next to the largest one in the 
world. The only thing that prevents it from being surrounded by 
water is the Isthmus of Panama, a narrow neck of land joining North 
America to South America. South America has no large gulfs and 
bays except lake Maracaybo for that is really a bay ; so it is not very 
thickly settled by white people. South America being mostly in the 
torrid zone has a very warm climate. It consists of three mountain 
chains, the Andes Mts. Parime Mts. and the Brazilian Mts. and three 
plains, the llanos, selvas, and Pampas. The Andes are a large sys- 
tem extending along the whole of the western coast. They are a 
part of the large system in North America, and are very steep and 
dangerous in climbing. But they have an animal called the llama 
which is a very sure-footed animal. There are many volcanoes and 
many cities have been entirely destroyed. There are great many 
high and wide table-lands or plateaus among the Andes and many 
cities are built upon them because the air is more healthful. Quan- 
tities of silver and copper are found among the Andes. The people, 
etc. etc. M A B . 

SOUTH AMERICA (d). 

South America is a large peninsula. There are high mountains 
all around the margin. The Andes are on the west, the Parimas on 
the north, and the Brazilian Andes on the east. There are high 
table lands among the Andes, with a good many villages and towns 
on them. The table land is often named for the town that is on it. 
There are a great many gold and silver mines among the Andes. 
Lake Titicarca is the highest large lake in the world They get a 
great many diamonds from the rivers among the Brazilian Andes. 

The three principal rivers are the Amazon, the Orinoco and the 
La Plata. The Llanos are along the Orinoco, and are covered with 
coarse grass in the wet season and with dust in the dry season. In 



62 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

the wet season all the rivers overflow, and grass grows taller than 
a man. There are herds of horses and cattle feeding on the grass, 
and there are a great many snakes and reptiles. In the dry season 
all the grass withers up, and all the herds are driven to the moun- 
tains. All the snakes and all the animals bury themselves in the 
ground, and the insects all die. There is not a tree to be seen, except 
along the river banks. The selvas, or wooded plains, etc., etc. 

C W S . 

Under the care of another teacher, this same class studied 
Asia from the book, and then wrote what they knew about 
that country. Two extracts are selected from this set of 
papers prepared by the same scholars. 

ASIA (a'). 

The outline of Asia is very irregular, but the seas, gulfs, and bays, 
do not extend so far into the land, as those in Europe. 

The principal mountains are the Himalaya, Altai, Thian Shan and 
the Kuen Lun. 

South of these mountains is a great desert plain extending from 
west to east. It is made up of salt, salt marshes, sand and gravel. 
South of this are three peninsulas. 

The rivers are divided into three classes, those which flow into the 
Indian Ocean, those which flow into the Pacific Ocean, and those 
which flow into the Arctic Ocean. 

The climate is divided into three classes, the northern, southern 
and central. 

The religions are Pagans and Mohamedans. 

The divisions of Asia are Asiatic Turkey, Asiatic Russia, etc. 

M A B . 

ASIA (d'). 

Asia is the largest of the five Grand Divisions. The Gulfs and 
bays do not extend as far into the land as in Europe. 

The four principal mountain chains are the Himalaya, Thian 
Shan, Altai, and Kuen Lun. 



THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD 63 

The five seas on the Eastern coast of Asia are Behring Sea, Sea 
of Ochotsh, Yellow Sea, China Sea, and Sea of Japan. The Ara- 
bian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are on the southern coast of Asia. 
The rivers flowing north are, Obe, Lena, and Yenesei. The rivers 
flowing east are, Amoor, Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang. Those 
flowing south are, etc. 

The principal commercial city of Asiatic Turkey is Smyrna. Jeru- 
salem is the holy city of the Mohamidans. Mecca is the holy city 
of the Jews. 

Asiatic Russia is a very cold country, etc. 

C W S . 

These scholars were between ten and eleven years of age, 
and the selections are taken from the first part of each 
paper. The characteristic differences between a and a' , h 
and b' , are much more apparent from an examination of 
the full set of papers than from two selections. The first 
noticeable difference is that the average amount written was 
much larger when the class was taught topically than when 
taught from the text-book. This shows that there was much 
greater interest in South America than in Asia, — a fact con- 
trary to the common experience of teachers, when the coun- 
try alone is considered. There is a much greater difference 
in the facts presented and the language used, in a and h, 
than in a' and //. In the one the text-book was closely 
followed ; in the other, information was obtained from many 
different sources. In the former, the appearance of the 
country, the productions, and the people are the prominent 
topics remembered ; in the latter, the names of natural 
divisions and the localities of places. The one gives us 
some variety in the sentences ; the other none, is and are 
being the common verbs employed. In the one, an intelli- 
gent knowledge of the country worthy of a first class is 



64 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

exhibited ; in the other, a mere memorizing of the dryest 
details from map and description. The difference in the 
teachers does not satisfactorily account for this vast differ- 
ence in results. The method, as well as the teacher, made 
the great disparity. 

6. The Topical Method enables the Instructor to teach Something 
besides Geography. 

Charles Barnard, in his graphic description of the model 
primary school given in a recent number of the " Century," 
shows how fully, by the oral and topical method, some- 
thing besides reading and numbers is taught in our best 
Massachusetts schools. He closes his article with this sen- 
tence : " The American boy from the new schools will be a 
master at many trades, because he has been taught to use 
his imagination, to observe, to use his senses and his mind 
in a workmanlike manner." 

In teaching geography on the same plan, by the topical, 
oral, and objective methods, the pupil receives instruction 
and practice in writing, drawing, spelling, dictation, reading, 
and the most practical kind of oral lessons. Better than 
all these advantages, this method assists the teacher in 
elevating the taste of his scholars in reading. By a litrte 
effort the dime novel, half-dime novel, and all that worse 
than trashy literature, may be supplanted by books written 
by such authors as Livingston, Baker, Stanley, Knox, Taylor, 
Abbott, Greeley, Kane, Hayes, Miss Bird, etc. To accom- 
plish this, it is not enough for the teacher to recommend 
certain books : he must either place the books in the hands 
of his scholars, or he must supply them with the catalogue- 
number of those books. It is not an easy matter to obtain 



STANDS THE TEST OK EXAMINATIONS 65 

these numbers, as any teacher can learn by trying to ascer- 
tain the correct numbers for the latest fifty books on travel, 
in any large city library. Mr. Cogswell, the excellent super- 
intendent of schools in Cambridge, has placed teachers and 
scholars in his city under great obligation, by printing in 
his report for 1882, not only the titles of many choice books 
for general reading, but he has given the catalogue-numbers 
for the Cambridge Public Library. It is to be hoped that 
other superintendents will do likewise. 

6. The Topical Method ahrays stands well the Test of Examinations. 

The length of time during which impressions remain 
fixed upon the memory depends upon the degree of atten- 
tion given to the subject, and the interest felt by the learner. 
The association of ideas, especially by way of resemblance 
or dissimilarity, the learning of facts in their natural or 
consecutive order, are made very prominent by this method, 
and the memory is thereby greatly aided. The writing of 
information in blank-books is one of the best ways to 
impress such information upon the memory. The testi- 
mony of hundreds of pupils taught in this way invariably is, 
tliat the topical method makes the facts of geography 
"stick." 

Examinations in geography, as well as in other studies, 
we maintain, are helpful to teachers and scholars. It is 
wise to give some kind of a test at the close of each 
country taught. We are yet to find a class which will do 
less study on account of the expected examination. If the 
pupils are young, the test should be short and simple. 
Perhaps one question — Write all you know about this 
country, and draw a map, using the pasteboard outlines — 



66 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

will be sufificient. In the higher classes a severer test should 
be given. 

In Boston schools, scholars thus taught always pass good 
examinations upon the questions presented by the board of 
supervisors, because this method creates wide intelligence, 
sets scholars to thinking for themselves, and using their 
imaginations so they can answer indirect as well as direct 
questions upon the countries taught. We again illustrate 
from our own experience. 

During the past year, a teacher of a lower class requested 
us to examine her pupils upon Europe. Twenty difficult 
questions for that class were prepared as an experiment, 
and given with the consent of the teacher, both of us ex- 
pecting a poor result, if not a failure. These were some 
of the questions : i . By what route would you go from 
Boston- to England? 2. How long would it take to go by 
steam? 7. In what part of that country are there few 
inountains? 13. How does the climate of England differ 
from that of New England? 18. In what countries of 
Europe are to be found grapes, flax, and olives? 19 and 20. 
Write something about the schools or the people of some 
part of Europe, or write out an imaginary journey. 

The average age of these scholars was eleven years ; 
and the average per cent upon such questions, eighty- 
■ seven. 

Recently we gave a similar test upon South America, to 
a class taught by the topical method. Experts called the 
questions very difficult for the age of the class : they had 
studied geography two years and a half. Several of the 
questions and ar^wers are given as illustrations. 



TEST ON SOUTH AMERICA 67 

2. flow could a person go from Boston, or from New York, to 
South America ? 

" If they lived near the eastern coast of North America, they could 
take a vessel from the ports on the Atlantic coast, and if they lived 
on or near the Pacific coast, they could take a vessel from one of the 
ports on the Pacific Ocean, or if they lived in the interior, they could 
take a vessel, and cross the Gulf of Mexico to one of the ports on the 
northern coast of South America." 

3. In going, what ocean-current would be crossed ? 

" In going from Boston or New York, you would cross the Gulf 
Stream." 

5. Tell about the surface of South America. 

"The surface of South America in some parts is very mountainous, 
having on the western coast the Andes, which are a part of the Rocky 
Mountains in North America. They are very high, in some parts 
having volcanoes. In among the mountains is a large plateau, which 
is a thousand miles long. It contains Lake Titicaca, which is sup- 
posed to be the highest large lake in the world. The Parinie Moun- 
tains are in the northern part of South America. They are not so 
high as the Andes, but not so low as some others I will tell you about. 
The Brazilian Andes are in the eastern part of South America. They 
are very low. All the way from east of the Andes, as far as the Bra- 
zilian Andes is a vast plain." 

7. Where and what is the princij^al water-shed.' 

"The Andes, on the western side of the country." 

11. What capitals on the western coast are inland, and why.' 

" Bogota is in the United States of Colombia, and it is in the cen 
tre. Quito is the capital of Ecuador, and it is situated right undci 
the Equator. Bolivia is now on, or used to be situated on the Pacific 
coast. Its capital is Lopaz, and that is situated in the interior. Pc i 
is one of the countries that has an inland' capital. It is Lima, which 
is the largest city west of the Andes. Chili is on the western coast. 
Its capital is Santiago, which is very near the Argentine Confedera- 
tion. These capitals are all in the interior, because it is so much 
more healthy there than on the coast, where it is moist and unhealthy. 
There are mountains in the interior, and cities can be built there." 

12. Describe one of the noted plains ai South America. 



68 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

15. What are the habits of the races in that country? 

"The whites are for the most part an idle sort of people, fond of 
swinging in their hammocks and smoking. In the settled states, the 
Indians perform most of the labor. The negroes were brought into 
the country for slaves, but most of them have been freed." 

16. What causes affect the climate, and how ? 

"All above the thirtieth parallel of south latitude, the winds blow 
from the east, and the Andes Mountains being on the west side, take 
the moisture from the winds as they get them, so the country on the 
west side is dry. All below the given parallel, the winds blow from 
the west, so the country on the east of the Andes, below thirty south 
latitude, is dry." 

18. Tell some facts about the growth and appearance of one of the 
natural productions. 

"The tree from which coffee comes grows to be very high, but it is 
usually kept down to about five feet, by cutting, so that the berries can 
be easily picked. The fruit grows very luxuriantly, blossoms and 
ripe fruit being seen on the tree at the same time. The berries are 
red when ripe, and are sweet and good to eat." 

19. What books have you read or heard read about South America ? 
What pictures have you seen outside your text-book? 

" I read something about South America in Harper's Monthly." 
" I have read the book called ' The Voyage round the World, with 
Sunbeam.' " " I have seen the picture of the coffee-plant, and cocoa." 

20. What persons were connected with the history of South 
America ? 

" Columbus discovered South America. Bolivia was named after 
General Bolivar, under whose careful guidance they threw off the 
-yoke of Spain." 

The Examination 

in the graduating class may be divided into three parts. 

In Part I. the teacher selects some one of the topics of 
the schedule, as, for instance, Surface, or Life, and asks the 
class to write all they can upon it. This is a grand exercise 
in composition. In Part II., definite questions should be 
asked or subjects assigned ; e.g., — 



QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS C9 

What are the striking characteristics of Asia ? 

Write a page or more about the plateaus. 

Mention the rivers in order, and compare any two of 
them. 

What have you learned from pictures or objects seen 
about the country? 

Mention the leading exports of Japan and India. 

In Part III., a memory map should be required. This 
request may be thus worded : — 

Draw from memory a map of Asia. Print upon it the 
capitals, principal towns, four mountains, four rivers, two 
each of the natural divisions, the principal productions, and 
underline the exports and exporting towns. 

We have generally, at the close of the instruction upon 
geography, given the graduating class a severe and compre- 
hensive test of their knowledge. Last year the test assumed 
this form : Each scholar was furnished with a blank outline 
map of the world, drawn on Mercator's Projection, pub- 
lished by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. The following were 
some of the questions given : — 

2. Draw the prime meridian in its correct place upon 
the map ; the meridian 20° W. ; 100° W. ; 100° E. 

3. Mark degrees of parallels and meridians. 

4. Mark noon for prime meridian, and the correct time 
at same moment for the other meridians. 

5. Show by black dots the voyage of the " Vega." 

7. Show by arrows the direction of principal winds. 

8. Print the names of principal ocean-currents, and show 
direction by arrows. 

9. Draw principal mountain ranges in each continent, 
print names of ranges and important peaks. 



70 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

14. Show in red ink a practical route around the world. 

15. Show other important commercial routes. 

16. Show by red crosses the situation of volcanic districts. 
19. Print in blue mk principal animals in each grand 

division. 

The result obtained is shown in one case on the next page. 

These questions show the wide range of instruction 
attempted. No single text-book, only the topical method, 
enables teachers to ask questions of this character. Scholars 
thus taught not only know names and localities, but interest- 
ing facts connected therewith. This particular test condensed 
into a single page a vast amount of information, which could 
be rapidly examined and corrected. Twenty questions were 
asked ; and more than half the class drew each over fifty 
lines and marks upon the blank map, and printed over two 
hundred names, most of which were correctly spelled and 
located. See Figs. 3 and 4. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

An illustration can be given from personal experience 
for the encouragement of other teachers. We began 
several years ago to read to our classes from various 
books of travel, such as Miss Bird's " Japan," Mrs. Brassey's 
" Sunbeam," Prime's " Around the World," etc. The results 
were excellent. What was read one day was recited the 
next, or brought in in the shape of a composition, being 
written out from memory. 

We then conceived the idea of having the pupils read to 
us, as being much more for their advantage. Our efforts 
were rather discouraging till we began to supply the class with 
the library-numbers of the books. These were written upon 




Fig. 3. — The Outline of the World, 
{li real size.) 




! filled in. for Final Examination. 
. 69 and 70.) 




Fig. 4. — A Reproduction by the Photographic Process, of . 

Mentioned on pp. 6 








V.e« 


cflt^' 


Ves„l 


n.e 


P^r.r. 


ijj 


K.« 


yet Cx 


re 


(/.«.»<,/• ^/j 


itri 


►'•e 


■rcr C. 


o«f.»re 


A^l 


>,<:!cr 


Africa 



.,..-" 



/i o'./e.A 



lorbett's Map, after answering the Examination Questions 
o. (^/i real size.) 



READING HOUR 71 

the blackboard without the titles, or furnished by underlined 
catalogues, or written catalogues accessible to all. In various 
ways the pupils were encouraged to obtain these books. 
During the recitation some reference was perhaps made to 
some of these books, — a word dropped about an author's 
experience in the distant land, about the appearance of the 
country, or some fact stated about tlie people. Curiosity 
was thus awakened, and in a day or two several boys obtained 
some of the books, and proudly brought them to school. 
Then the literary contagion spread with healthy rapidity. 

Our present plan is to encourage and direct the reading, 
by appointing for the last session of the week a " reading- 
hour," at which the pupils are expected to be ready to read 
from books of travel, magazines, etc., short selections relating 
to the geography of the country then under consideration, 
instead of reading from the regular reader. Our experience 
shows that this method teaches pupils to call words much 
more rapidly than by using the reader, that it creates great 
interest, that both pupils and teacher learn many new facts 
about the country and the people, and that the pupils make 
remarkably good selections. 

The number of books read under these circumstances will 
vary somewhat with different classes. Two years ago a class 
of forty pupils read ninety books upon Africa during six 
weeks' time, and over two hundred upon the other coun- 
tries during three and a half months' tmie, making about 
three hundred books read in five months. 

The next class were better readers. They read upon 
Africa in six weeks a hundred and fifty-three books ; upon 
Asia in November, a hundred and fifty books ; upon the other 
countries, in the two remaining months during which geog- 



72 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

raphy was taught, a hundred and fifty books ; making a total 
of four hundred and fifty-three books read by forty pupils in 
five months. 

Sorne of the topics presented at the " reading-hour " were 
the following : viz., — 

" Balize," from Stephens's Incidents of Travel in Central America, 
p. II. 

" Ascent of Popocatapetl," from Brocklehurst's Mexico To-day, 
p. 104. 

" Among the Esquimaux," from Hayes's The Arctic Boat Journey, 

p. 121. 

"Ascent of the Matterhorn," from Whymper's Scrambles amongst 
the Alps, p. 150. 

" Manners and Morals of Stockholm," from Taylor's Northern 
Travel, p. 210. 

" Schools of Germany,"' from Brown's American Family in Ger- 
many, p. 59. 

" Caste in India," from Prime's Around the World, p. 244. 

" Dress and Dwellings of the Samoyeds," from Nordenskiold's 
Voyage of the Vega, chap. ii. 

" Relief of Lucknow," from Butler's Land of the Veda, p. 293. 

" Japanese Customs and Dress," from Miss Bird's Japan, p. 41, v. i. 

" Siberian Prisons," from Lansdell's Through Siberia, p. 77. 

" Moorish House," from De Amicis' Morocco, p. 34. 

" Cassala Natives," from James's Wild Tribes of the Soudan, 

~ p. 54- 

" Dogs and Animals," from Schweinfurth's Heart of Africa, p. 91, 

V. I. 

" Suez Canal," from Manning's Land of the Pharaohs, p. 177. 
" The Gorilla," from Chaillu's Equatorial Africa, p. 394. 
"Cocoanuts," from Brassey's Tahiti, p. 61. 
" Sugar Estate," from Ober's Camps in the Caribbees, p. 229. 
" India Rubber and its Preparation," from Keller's Amazon, 
p. 92. 

"Southern Andes," from Dixie's Across Patagonia, p. 174. 



THEIR FAVORITE AUTHORS 73 

It was wonderful how much their love for good reading 
was developed in five months by this method. During the 
rest of the year, the class read the best books in history and 
literature. The pupils who began the year with Cameron, 
Baker, Stanley, Nordenskiold, Lansdell, Taylor, Ober, 
Marcoy, Du Chaillu, finished the year by reading Macaulay, 
Hume, Knight, Dickens, MacKenzie, Yonge, Abbot, Guizot, 
Bancroft, Cooper, Irving, Prescott, Towle, Longfellow, 
Whittier, and Scott's poems and novels. 

Suggestire (Questions. 

1. What kind of business in your native State is now very pros- 
perous ? 

2. What are some of the leading occupations of the people ? 

3. What are the leading railroads ? 

4. Compare your own State with the one on the north or on the 
south ; on the east or on the west ? 

5. What are the five most important daily papers in the State? 

6. Write ten lines about the climate of the State ? 

7. Are most of the people in your State native-born .' 

8. Does your State have good schools ? 

9. What are some of the principal cities or towns in the State, and 
what has made them so prosperous ? 

10. Describe a journey from one end of the State to the other. 



CHAPTER V 

APPARATUS 



^HE foundation of all learning consists in representing clearly to 
the senses sensible objects, so that they can be apprehended easily. 

Comeniiis. 
75 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. 
Frye's Geography with Sand Modelling. 
Geikie's Teaching of Geography. 
Grove's Geography (Primer). 
Parker's How to teach Geography. 
Dolbear's Art of Projecting. 

76 



CHAPTER V 
APPARATUS 

ILLUSTRATION OF THE ROCK ISLAND ROUTE — HOW TO OBTAIN ADVERTISEMENTS 
— TRUNK LINE CIRCULARS — BLACKBOARDS, CRAYONS — OUTLINE MAPS — TRANS- 
FER AND STENCIL MAPS — REYNOLDS'S CHARTS — RAISED ATLAS — CHARTS —THE 
RUBBER PEN — SCHOOL SOLAR CAMERA. 

ONE day a poorly dressed boy handed his teacher a 
unique advertisement of the Rock Island Route, in 
the form of a first-class passenger ticket around the world, 
supposed to be issued by the Chicago, Rock Island, and 
Pacific Railroad, containing nineteen coupons, showing in 
large letters the important places on the route, and their 
distances from one another. The teacher, holding this in 
his hand, stepped to the board, unrolled it, and held it up 
before the class, telling them what a fine present Master 
O'Brien had just given him. He then asked the boys to 
open their geographies, and take, in imagination, a trip 
round the world as advertised on this supposed ticket. 

New York was the starting-point. The class named the 
next important place, Liverpool. The teacher drew on the 
large blackboard outline map of the world, a wide, heavy 
red line from New York to Liverpool, and put down the 
distance on the line, and the average time it would take to 
make the trip. These figures were also placed on one side 
at the head of columns. Then the next section in the trip 
was taken, laid out and figured, the class becoming wonder- 

77 



78 ..iSTHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

fully inrerested. In ten minutes the distance round the 
earth, via the most popular route, was sketched and figured 
in miles and days. Afterward the class drew the route on 
the commercial map in the back part of their geographies. 
That class during the year never forgot how the world is 
circumnavigated for business or pleasure. 

This little experiment shows how valuable the simplest 
object is to illustrate a point in geography, or to awaken an 
interest in a class. 

Advertisements that can be obtained for the asking often 
contain plans, maps, or pictures, of immense value in the 
schoolroom. Each teacher should exercise a little energy 
and ingenuity in finding and obtaining such helps. The 
pupils of the class will become wide-awake partners in 
this enterprise, if the teacher explain the need and advan- 
tage to them of securing every possible helpful advertise- 
ment. 

The writer has in his possession a large number of helps 
thus pleasantly obtained. A few are mentioned, to encourage 
teachers to work in a similar line. The complete addresses 
are not given here, because most of these particular articles 
have been already exhausted." 

One class within a week brought to school a fine picture 
of the Old Mill at Newport ; a dozen colored cards showing 
the natural growth of the different spices ; a perfect picture 
of a western prairie home ; Florida scenery ; several pro- 
grammes of illustrated lectures ; maps and itineraries by 
Thomas Cook & Son, New York ; by Raymond, Boston ; 

■ The writer once put a very gentlemanly book-agent to considerable expense and 
trouble by mentioning, in an article for an educational paper, some valuable picture 
the agent had been giving away with the list of books published by his firm. 



SUMMER SAUNTERINGS 79 

the oldest house in America (1634) ; the Natural Bridge; 
sights in Burlington, etc. 

But more valuable than these, are the circulars issued 
every year by the great trunk lines of railroads in this 
country, such as the Boston and Albany, Hoosac Tunnel, 
Grand Trunk, Pennsylvania, New York Central, etc. Several 
railroads publish each summer, about the first of June, a 
special pamphlet full of graphic descriptions, and excellent 
pictures, " for gratuitous circulation." The following are 
especially recommended as worth asking for : — 

" Summer Saunterings," by the Boston and Lowell R.R. ; 
" White and Franconia Mountains," by the Boston, Con- 
cord, and Montreal R.R. ; " Tip-End of Yankee-Land," by 
the Old Colony R.R. ; " By-Ways," by the Central Vermont 
R.R. ; " Union Pacific Tourist," by the Union Pacific R.R., 
Omaha; "The Apostle Islands," by the Wisconsin Cen- 
tral R.R., Milwaukee; "The Golden North-West," by the 
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul R.R., Chicago ; " The 
Bouquet," by the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy R.R. ; 
" Shasta," by the Southern Pacific ; also summer tours by 
the Erie R.R., New York ; the West Shore, New York Cen- 
tral, Hudson River R.R., and all the leading triaik lines ; 
"Guide to Washington," by Baltimore and Ohio R.R. ; 
"A Ramble through Wonderland," by the Northern 
Pacific R.R., St. Paul ; " The Heart of the Rockies," by 
the Colorado ^Midland, Denver. 

No more useful apparatus can be found in the school- 
room than the blackboard. As it should be constantly used 
by the teacher and pupils, plenty of blackboard surface 
should be supplied, and this should be in all cases of the 
best quality. The best blackboard thus far examined is the 



8o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

ordinary slate, provided it does not change its color. 
With enamel crayons, a person can shade on this black- 
board as readily as with a good pen on paper. The black- 
board can be washed at any time without injury. The best 
white enamel crayon for softness, and freedom from grit, is 
the Parmentar enamel crayon, made in Waltham, Mass. 
The best colored enamel crayon is the New York Crayon 
Company's. The enamel crayon should come into imme- 
diate use, because its introduction will lead to a much 
greater use of the chalk, especially the colored variety. 
The great objection to the use of colored crayon has been 
its dirtiness ; but when a teacher can hold a colored enamel 
crayon in the hand all day, and not soil her fingers at all, 
she will be likely to use it for a great variety of purposes. 

It is very frequently convenient to have a special black- 
board for use in geography, on which the simplest outlines 
of the grand divisions may be drawn in permanent lines, 
representing the countries large enough for writing within, 
in their proper places, the names of prominent towns, of 
productions, natural divisions, facts about climate, etc. 
Professor Adams of Worcester accomplishes this by having 
the outline of the map painted, in old-gold color, on the 
regular blackboard, or on extra movable blackboards, which 
can be readily hung over the other boards. The surface of 
the blackboard possible in a room is thus greatly enlarged. 
Those who cannot afford these will find a very good sub- 
stitute in the cloth blackboards, which have the advantage 
of being more easily handled. The material of which this 
board is made consists of strong cloth, covered with liquid 
slating such as is usually placed on plaster blackboards. 
The cloth blackboard is sold with this slate preparation on 



I 



A CLOTH BLACKBOARD 8l 

one side, for sixty cents per square yard ; on both sides, for 
a dollar per square yard. They are sold, all mounted, in 
Boston, at the School Supply Company, 15 Bromfield Street. 
Size No. 2, which answers well for North and South America 
or Africa, costs a dollar and a half. Tli^ blackboard, of 
course, is a blank when purchased. 

The outlines of any country can be easily made upon it 
by tracing them with stencil maps, and then painting them 
over with some bright color in oil. One or two rivers 
and a chain of mountains may be added, and the map is 
finished. Europe may be drawn on one side, and South 
America on the other. We have seen this well done by 
young boys. If a youth about fourteen can make so good 
an outline map, it would seem that any teacher could easily 
make one for use next year. These maps wear well, although 
in daily use. With them the teacher can impart much 
information, and also give variety to the recitation. Pupils 
can be sent to the map to locate and express in writing, or 
by marks, various matters of information. In some schools 
these maps are used more constantly and profitably than 
any other piece of geographical apparatus. 

One of the best recitations we ever heard in the geog- 
raphy of the United States was given in Mr. Lyford's school, 
Worcester, Mass. ; the pupils indicating upon a similar map, 
in various ways, their ansW^ers. It was astonishing how much 
they could express upon the board in less than a minute. 

In teaching the United States, great help is obtained by 
showing the class a variety of maps, such as can be pro- 
cured free of the different railroad companies. The Chicago 
and Alton Railroad have given away thousands of their large 
standard-time map, so helpful in teaching this subject. 



82 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

No form of apparatus is more useful than every variety 
of maps. Guyot's are still the best physical wall-maps, and 
Hughes' the best political maps. As maps will be treated at 
length in another chapter, reference will only be made here 
to two special kinds, which come properly under apparatus. 

Transfer and stencil maps are a great convenience for 
quickly and correctly making an outline of a country. A 
transfer map is made by tracing from a wall map of desired 
size, about three feet in length being a convenient size, a 
map of some country, as North America, for instance, 
giving rivers, lakes, mountains, political boundaries, etc. 
Produce this upon a large sheet of manilla paper, reversing 
the sides so the eastern boundary — Newfoundland, etc. 
— r will be on the left, and California on the right, north being 
still at the top. Line in heavily with common colored 
crayons, using the brightest color, — blue for the coast, 
green for the mountains, red for the boundaries, etc. Then 
moisten the blackboard with a wet cloth, and press the 
crayoned map upon the moistened surface. Upon removal, 
a perfectly formed map will be seen, only needing to be 
lined in to make it stand out more emphatically. The 
transfer map thus prepared can be used over and over 
again by occasional renewals of the crayon. Stencil maps 
have their outlines perforated with small holes, through 
which the crayon dust readily passes to the board when 
the map is held against the blackboard and struck with the 
dusty eraser or cloth. The faint lines thus made are 
strengthened by the crayon. Stencil maps save so iTiuch 
time, they have become very popular. Such a map can be 
easily made by the teacher, or " stencil " maps all ready 
for use can be purchased of the educational publisher. 



DIFFERENT APPARATUS 83 

The Standard Letter and Invoice File, sold at most 
stationers' for fifty cents, is a great convenience for a scrap 
or picture album in geography. The various pockets are 
arranged alphabetically, and will hold a large amount of 
material. A moulding-board of some kind is one of the 
necessities of the schoolroom, but it is not at all necessary 
that it should be a grand twenty-five-dollar zinc affair. A 
very good board can be made for a few dollars by any 
carpenter. A convenient size is two and one-half feet by 
three feet : if it has round edges, two inches deep, and is 
set on folding supports so as to be raised and supported 
at a convenient angle, its usefulness is greatly increased. 
But any teacher can easily obtain a plain pine board, such 
as is sold for kitchen use, paint it blue, and make it serve 
all needed purposes. On such a board, sand, clay, and 
putty work can be made. 

J. Reynolds & Sons, London, publish several important 
charts, some of which are charts for physical geography, 
astronomical geography, nature in ascending regions. These 
three are large enough to be easily seen across the room by 
the whole class, and cost about two dollars and a half each. 
They are imported by the School Supply Company, Boston, 
Mass. Sonnenschein and Allen's Atlas, containing thirty- 
xme raised maps, deserves to be mentioned in this place. 
Dissected maps, upon same scale, of the grand divisions 
and United States, have just been made by Milton Bradley 
& Co. Norris's Cyclopedic Map helps to give variety to 
recitations. 

Home-made charts perhaps are capable of as varied use 
as any kind of apparatus. The best charts are printed 
ui)on white cloth, but these cost too much. Manilla paper. 



84 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

however, makes a good substitute for cloth, and when 
bought by the pound (ten to twelve cents per pound) is 
much cheaper. It is usually sold at this price by the roll 
of about one hundred pounds. Several teachers can club 
together, and buy a roll. The best instrument with which 
to write upon this paper is the rubber pen recently manu- 
factured for marking and directing goods. This pen is 
usually sold at rubber stores and stationers ; price, fifteen 
cents.^ To make it work well without dipping too often, 
the side creases should be enlarged by cutting out with a 
penknife, so they will hold more ink. Dip and write as 
with an ordinary pen : there is no danger of blotting. A 
vast amount of writing can be done with a single pen. 




Fig. 5. — Rubber Pen, Natural Size. 

These charts are readily mounted by carrying the top of 
the paper over a half-inch stick, and fastening with large- 
headed tacks ; then carry bottom of paper twice round 
one-inch pine-roller, and fasten with common tacks driven 
about two inches apart. One or two eyelets in the top 
stick will hold the chart. If a similar eyelet is fastened 
into the picture-moulding in front of the class, and a linen 
string or cord run through it, the teacher will have a con- 
venient method of raising and lowering pictures, charts, 
or maps, whenever needed for instruction. These charts 
should not be more than ten or twelve feet long. The 
wider kinds of paper are the more convenient. Most of 
these charts should be on paper four and a half feet wide. 

^ Sold by J. L. Hammett, 352 Washington Street, Boston. 



CHARTS 85 

A convenient fomi and size for a cliart is one made and 
mounted like a music chart, in which the leaves are three 
feet square. 

Below, suggestions are made of good subjects for chart 
work : — 

Population of China compared with other countries, shown 
in squares and color ; climate of North America by belts ; 
the religions of Africa ; the discoveries of Africa ; review 
charts ; spelling-charts ; a temperance chart, showing to the 
eye by rectangles the amount in value of liquor, bread, 
cloth, etc., consumed in United States in a year ; com- 
parative height of mountains ; length of rivers ; Greeley's 
Arctic route ; the world's industries, shown by blocks ; all 
the grand divisions on the same scale. 

Valuable charts can be easily made by cutting out from 
some family atlas the richly colored diagrams to illustrate 
population, area, exports, imports, etc., and mounting the 
same on stiff paper, with margins wide enough for writing 
figures or a few words sufficiently large to be read across 
the schoolroom. 

More useful than these are the original charts which 
evolve themselves from the common experiences of the 
schoolroom. For instance, you are teaching about the 
discoverers of Africa. You sketch on the board the routes 
of each discoverer, and write near them the proper date 
and name. Now, if these be drawn in colored inks on a 
large piece of manilla paper, the chart thus made can be 
used year after year, and much time saved for other work. 

Our first large charts were stencilled letter by letter on 
white cloth. Such charts can be read m the largest hall ; 
but they are not needed in the schoolroom, and they cost 



86 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



too much time and money. With the aid of the rubber 
pen, charts can be easily written or printed so as to be 
read by every pupil in the ordinary schoolroom. 

But the best wine is left for the last. It remains to 
speak now of a piece of apparatus which puts all those 
given above completely in the shade. It is well known, of 
course, that the most perfect pictures for the schoolroom 
are photographic slides, thrown upon the screen by an 




oxyhydrogen lantern or solar camera. These pictures can 
be enlarged in the schoolroom to ten feet square. A pic- 
ture of that size impresses itself upon the young mind. As 
these pictures can be seen by all the scholars at the same 
time, explanations and comments are profitably given by 
the teacher. The first cost of the stereopticon or lantern 
(from one hundred dollars to two hundred and seventy-five 
dollars) is so great, and there is so much trouble and 



SCHOOL SOLAR CAMERA S7 

expense in supplying gases, that it is practically ruled out 
of the public schoolroom. A worthy substitute is now sup- 
plied by the Solar Camera/ such as is shown on p. 86, the 
invention of Professor Henry R. Russell, Millville, Penn. 
We speak from personal acquaintance, as we carried the 
first instrument to Boston, shortly after its invention, and 
have yearly shown our classes nearly four hundred different 
pictures with this instrument. The results have exceeded 
our fondest hopes. The convenience and ease with which 
the camera can be placed in the window, the screen 
adjusted, the room darkened, and the necessary prepara- 
tions made for a picture-lesson, are greatly in its favor. 
Excellent pictures can be shown, even when the day is hazy. 
Under ordinary sunlight the pictures are better than by 
the artificial light. At the same time the room is light 
enough for the pupils to take notes. This instrument can 
be used in teaching geography, history, physiology, natural 
sciences, etc. its availability is unlimited. Having once 
enjoyed its fascinating help, we should not know how to 
teach in the future without its assistance. As it costs less 
than ten dollars, the teachers of any school-building or 
district, by combining, can readily purchase it. Slides 
can now be purchased of A. T. Thompson & Co., 13 
Tremont Row, Boston, Wm. H. Row, 1324 Chestnut 
Street, Philadelphia, and usually wherever photographs 
are sold. Price, fifty cents. 

Note. — The simple outline of a country cut out of tough, flexible 
pasteboard, about six inches by four, is a cheap and useful help for 
beginners in map-drawing. The pasteboard outline is placed on the 
slate or paper, and the children easily mark around it the required 
contour. Such outlines are now made and sold by J. M. Hammett, 
352 Washington Street, Boston. Price, $3.00 per hundred. 

• For a full account of this instrument, see "This Continent of Ours," Appendix. 



I 



1 



CHAPTER Vr 

MAP LANGUAGE 



Without maps, true geographical teaching is impossible. — Guyot. 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. 

Geikie's Teaching of Geography. 

Goodison's Articles in Popular Educator for 1887 

AND 1888. 
K. Johnston's Historical, Physical, and Descriptive 

Geography. 

90 



CHAPTER VI 
MAP LANGUAGE 

RELATIVE POSITION — ABSOLUTE TERMS — PLAN AND MAP — A MAP VS. A PICTURE — 
WHAT MAPS SHOULD SHOW— MAP-READING — THE MAP OF AFRICA —ILLUSTRATIVE 
LESSON 

IF the pupils do not fully understand the symbols used on 
an ordinary map, they must be taught this new language. 
In a class of beginners, this is a somewhat difficult task, 
and requires weeks for its accomplishment. 

FOR BEGINNERS 
1. Teach first Relative Position. 

Meaning of the prepositions, up, above, below, etc. Illus- 
trate with book and desk. 

Right and left hand, right-hand corner, etc. 

2. Absolnte Terras, North, South, East, etc. 

Show compass. 

Direction of other rooms, both relative and absolute. 
Other schools and houses. 

3. Draw Plan and Map. 

Teacher places on each desk different objects, such as a 
book, slip of paper, round pasteboard disk, etc., and has 
the class draw on paper a representation of the desk thus 
arranged. 

Then a plan of the room can be made, drawn to scale, 

91 



92 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

as one foot to one-fourth of an inch ; and this may be 
followed by one of the house, and finally the yard may be 
included. In doing this, the teacher must exercise good 
judgment, and not require too difficult work for the age of 
the children. 

Then the vicinity can be mapped out in a simple way. 

When this is finished, a map of the city, or a more 
elaborate one by the teacher, will be examined by the class 
with much interest. 

At this stage, it is well for the teacher to draw a simple 
plan of the surroundings of the school, on a cloth black- 
board, as it lies on the table, and then hang it up so all can 
see it at once. This will suggest why maps are always hung 
against the wall. 

The difference between plans and maps may now be 
illustrated by making a simple plan and a simple map of 
the same well-known part of the town. Distances can be 
quite correctly measured on maps if drawn to a scale. 

The difference between a map and a picture is shown by 
illustrations of the same section of the country represented 
in the two ways. Most of the English geographical readers 
contain such illustrations in the first numbers. It is well to 
make a profile of the same country. 

A map is not a picture, but it should suggest a picture. 

The picture is more beautiful to the traveller, but the map 
more useful. Why? 

WHAT DO MAPS SHOW? 

To beginners, the ordinary map should show the shape of 
the country ; the coast-line, the locality of capes, islands, 
mountains, and highlands ; in what direction they extend ; 



MAP READING. 93 

the mountain peaks ; where rivers will be found ; localities 
of lakes, gulfs, bays, cities, towns, and harbors. The raised 
map will show clearly the highlands and lowlands, the 
valleys, the peaks and volcanoes, the plains, and many 
physical features. 

If the older pupil is furnished with raised maps, or even 
physical maps as good as Guyot's, he can learn to see 
represented, besides locality, on such maps, the general 
configuration, and find the form most easily suggested, the 
position and then the proportion of highlands and lowlands, 
the plateau regions, the prevailing directions of the long 
ranges, the slope of the land, the water-shed, the groups of 
rivers or river-systems, where probably navigable, deltas, 
and other kinds of mouths, comparisons of rivers widely 
separated ; the pupil can also find the latitude and zones ; 
from the latter, the position of the elevations, etc., he can 
determine the climate, and then the vegetation and animals. 
All this will help him to decide the occupations of the 
people, and industries of the different parts of the country. 

If the teacher prepare a set of maps of all the grand 
divisions, drawn on the same scale, made either upon one 
large chart, or cut out separately in pasteboard, he can 
readily show by such maps the com^^arative size of the 
different countries. See Fig. 57, Chap. XIII. 

MAP-READING. 

Very few teachers in this country base their instruction 
upon an intelligent use of the map. The pupils should be 
taught to read the map as one does a newspaper. A large 
part of ths facts given in most so-called descriptive parts of 
geographical text-books are clearly stated upon the map, 



94 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

and do not need further expression. The pupil can be 
easily led to discover the important physical features of each 
country for himself. This will compel him to think while 
studying the map, and lead to self-activity and independ- 
ence of research. At first the teacher must assist the 
pupil both to see and to express these geographical facts. 
Suppose it is a class of the fifth year study, and map-read- 
ing has never been taken up as a special study ; then the 
teacher might lead them to see and talk in some such way 
as the following : — 

Hang up before the class Guyot's large physical map, 
Hughes's political map, and a map of the world. Let the 
pupils open their geographies to such maps as are found 
therein on the country. Suppose the grand division is 

AFRICA 

Teacher. Look at the map of the world, class, and tell me 
where Africa is situated. 

Pupil. Africa is in the southern part of the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere, directly south of the Mediterranean Sea, and between 
the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. 

T. What important lines do you notice crossing it '^. 

P. The equator and tropics. 

71 What facts are suggested by these lines ? 

P. They include a large part of the land in the country 
within the tropics, — more than is found in any other country. 
Hence Africa must be very hot and moist. 

T. Moist ? 

P. Yes, it ought to be very moist : but I see on the political 
map that the northern part contains a great desert ; this must 
be owing to local causes. 

T. You are right. We will learn about this at another 
time. Draw three lines, so as to include the contour, and tell 
me its shape. 



WHAT THE MAP OF AFRICA TELLS. 95 

P. It is triangular, like North and South America. 

T. Look on the chart of comparative .sizes, and tell me 
how it compares with other countries in reference to size. 

P. It is larger than North America, and two-thirds the size 
of Asia. 

T. What is the meaning of the colors on this physical 
map? 

P. The green indicates lowlands, less than one thousand 
feet high ; the buff, plateau regions ; the white, very high 
mountains, usually covered with snow. 

T. When you examine a map like this, what do you learn .-' 

P. As the green is only on the edge, I learn that the low- 
lands in Africa are mainly around the edge, near the coast, 
while the interior is a vast plateau. 

T. What exceptions to this general rule } 

P. There is some low land around Lake Tchad and the 
banks of the Nile. 

T. Is the white color used? 

P. Yes, in Abyssinia and south of that country. This 
must be the highest land in the country. 

T. Look at the physical map of Europe, and note any dif- 
ference from Africa in the situation of the highlands and 
lowlands. 

P. In Europe, the highlands are at one side, in the south- 
eastern part of the country, and the lowlands are in the 
north-eastern part. The latter cover more than half of the 
country. 

T. On the outline map draw a straight line from the Bight 
of Biafra to the middle of the Red Sea. Into what does this 
line divide Africa? 

P. Into two parts of about equal size. 

T. Are the two parts alike ? 

P. No : the northern part is rectangular in shape, and the 
southern part is triangular. 



96 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. What other differences appear upon a close examination 
of the map ? 

P. In the northern part I see that the chains run parallel 
with the parallels, or nearly east and west, as in Europe and 
Asia; in the southern, they run north and south. As there is 
more white and less green in the southern part, I judge the 
land is higher in the southern part, and hence that the plateau 
slopes towards the north. 

T. You are, in the main, right. The average height of the 
plateau in the northern part is fifteen hundred feet, and in 
the southern part three thousand feet. Where are the highest 
peaks ? 

P. Just south of the equator, in the main axis. 

T. What do you notice on the map about the ranges of 
mountains in the south ? 

P. They come together in Cape Colony, hence that country 
must be very mountainous. 

T. Notice the low land in that vicinity. 

P. It is not so wide as in other parts of the coast; for a 
considerable distance it disappears altogether, and there the 
mountains must come down to the water's edge, as in the south- 
western part of South America. 

Z". What else can you conclude ? 

P. That the slope is very abrupt. 

T. Do the mountains of Africa separate any countries ? 

P. Yes : the Kong and Crystal Mountains separate Guinea 
from Soudan and Central Africa. 

T. But far more interesting than this is the separation by 
the Atlas Mountains of the northern part of the Barbary States 
from the southern or desert part. North of the mountains are 
found moisture, temperate breezes, vegetation in abundance, 
a desirable and healthy climate ; south of the mountains, just 
the opposite. Where is the highest range of mountains ? 

P. On the east, near the Indian Ocean. 



MAP LANGUAGE. 97 

T. Where do you find the highest range of mountains in 
Asia? 

P. On the south side, near the Indian Ocean. 

T. Where in North and South America? 

P. On the west, nearest the Pacific. 

T. The largest mountains, remember, are nearest the 
larger ocean ; the largest slopes, nearest the smaller ocean. 
In what direction does water always flow? 

P. Down hill. The long rivers will flow down the long 
slopes. 

T. Into what oceans, then, must the large rivers flow ? 

P. Into the Atlantic, because most of the land slopes 
toward the Atlantic, or its counterpart the Arctic ; then, again, 
these rivers rise on the opposite side of the countries, between 
which ocean and high mountain barrier there is always abun- 
dance of rain. 

71 If a system of rivers consists of several flowing into the 
same body of water, find some systems in Africa. 

P. I find on the map the Atlantic system, Mediterranean, 
and Indian systems. 

T, What plainly indicates the slopes on the political map? 

P. The general direction of the rivers. 

T. Then trace with the pointer on this political map the 
continental water-shed. 

P. Beginning at Cape Blanco, the continental water-shed 
runs toward Lake Tchad, then northeasterly to Lake Tangan- 
yika; passing round the eastern side of Lake Bemba, it moves 
westward toward the Crystal Mountains, and then turns in a 
south-eastern direction to the Kalahari Desert. 

T. In the southern part of Africa, is the distance from the 
water-shed to the coast very long ? 

P. No. 

T. Then how can there be any long rivers ? 

P. Only by great curves, as in the case of the Congo and 
Niger. 



98 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. In what part of Africa is there a long distance from the 
water-line to the coast ? 

P. From where it crosses the equator to the Isthmus of 
Suez. 

T. What do we find here ? 

P. The longest river in Africa, flowing almost directly 
north, called the Nile. 

T. What is noticeable about the northern part of Africa? 

P. The general absence of rivers ; hence, deserts. The 
Nile cuts the great desert into two parts, but it has no 
branches. 

T. Why not ? 

P. Because a desert is on each side. 

T. What river of Africa is most readily navigated, and why? 

P. The Nile, because it flows over a gentle slope which is 
not crossed by mountains. 

T. What is true, as seen on the map, about the other 
rivers ? 

P. They descend from elevated plateaus, and make their 
way through ranges of mountains toward the sea. It is proba- 
ble that they are not navigable, like the Nile, from the ocean, 
for there must be cascades not far from their mouths. 

T. Such is the fact. The Congo, for instance, is navigable 
from the Atlantic Ocean for one hundred and ten miles to 
Vivi. For the next fifty miles it is not navigable, owing to cas- 
cades. Between the parallel ranges of the Crystal Mountains 
it is navigable for eighty-eight miles, and then cascades inter- 
rupt navigation for eighty-five miles. In order to overcome 
these difficulties to commerce, a railroad is needed, two hundred 
miles long, through Guinea. How have these facts affected 
the history of the country? 

P. I suppose these mountains and non-commercial rivers 
have kept Africa closed to civilization, except about the Nile. 



CHAPTER VII 

MAPS 



In learning outlines, use drawing; in studying relief, or surface 
slope, use modelling. — Alex. E. Frye. 

99 



L.cfC. 



BOOKS AND MAPS FOR REFERENCE 



Apgar's Map Drawing. 

Appalachia, June, 1882. 

Admiralty and Pilot Charts. 

Bangs's Outlines of Map Drawing. 

Bureau of Engineers, No- 12, 1873, Department of War. 

Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. 

Frye's Geography, with Sand Modelling. 

Guide Books, especially Baedeker's. 

Hand-Atlas of Spruner-Mencke, 

Huxley's Physiography. 

Johnston's Maps and Atlases, London ; especially such as 

those on Physiography. 
Lett's Popular Atlases, London. 
Parker's How to teach Geography. 
Powell's Maps of the U. S. Geological Survey. 
Reports of Chiff of Engineers on River and Harbor 

Improvements. 
Royal Geographical Society's Maps in " Proceedings." 
Reclus's The Earth. 
Stanford's Maps, London. 

Swinstead's How to draw a Map from Memory. 
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys. 
Wheeler's Surveys West of the looth Meridian. 
Wilme's Plain and Ornamental Mapping. 
Wenz's Atlas zur Landkarten-Entwurfs Lehre. 



a i 



CHAPTER VII. 
MAPS 

OBJECT OF A MAP— USE OF THE GLOBE — RAISED MAPS — PUTTY MAPS — PHYSICAL 
MAPS — HOW BEST REPRESENTED — WALL MAPS — MAP-DRAWING — TRIANGULA- 
TION OF NORTH AMERICA — PROGRESSIVE MAPS — OUTLINE MAPS — ADVANTAGES 
IN USING THEM — LARGE MAPS 

Object of Maps. 

A MAP is a representation on a flat surface of a part 
of the curved surface of the earth. The map of the 
world is usually drawn on Mercator's projection, and other 
maps on Bonne's, or tlie conic projection. 

(Teachers should explain how the former distorts the 
northern countries. See Grove's Geography, p. 25, or 
Huxley's Physiography, p. 335.) 

The map shows locality ; i.e., the direction and the dis- 
tance. The scale on a map shows the ratio of the distance 
on the map to the distance on the earth. Maps should be 
frequently spread on the floor or on the top of a table, with 
the top of the map towards the north, because children get 
wrong ideas of up, down, etc., from the hanging wall-map. 

The use in the class-room of a map made by a skilful 
cartographer is one thing ; the making by a pupil of a poor 
or even good imitation of the above map is quite a different 
thing. The printed map is properly used to help locate 
places, and to tell direction and distance. The map made 
by the pupil is to help him fix in mind various facts; in 
other words, simply to aid his memory. 

101 



102 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

As the maps in ordinary geographies are not at all accu- 
rate, as they are good for nothing to a sea-captain or in 
accurate surveys, and as no two of them exactly agree, it 
is foolish to require, as in some schools, that the pupils 
attempt to draw the coast-line exactly as it is in the geog- 
raphy. We know a certain school in which the children 
have been obliged to commit to memory all the little details 
of the coast-line, and reproduce them. It was heart-rending 
to look at the perfection of map-work in this grammar 
school, and to think what it must have cost ; and then to 
think, after all, it was not correct, for the geography maps 
in text- books are on too small a scale to be accurate. 
The maps of the Coast Survey are generally on a scale of 
one inch to a mile; the map of North America in most 
text-books is one inch to five hundred and twenty miles. 

Maps should not be considered works of art, or their 
production lessons in drawing. They should not be sur- 
rounded by numerous water-lines and beautiful borders; 
but they should be neat, in good proportion, and crowded 
with facts. 

Maps ought not to be used to the exclusion of the use 
of the globe. 

As a very good and serviceable globe can now be bought 
for twenty-five cents, teachers and school authorities are 
inexcusable if they do not possess a supply.* 

Raised Maps. 

These maps are sometimes called relief maps, although 
the latter term should be employed for maps which show 
by shaded lines the elevations. Raised maps show the 

1 Some teachers encourage their pupils to purchase these cheap globes. We have 
known three-fourths of a class to possess them. Paper globes, six inches in diame- 
ter, price twenty-five cents, are made by Robert Gair, 163 Chambers St., New York. 



APPARATUS FOR SAND-MAPS. IO3 

elevations both by color and by raising up the part repre- 
senting the highland and plateau regions. 

The best maps' of this kind manufactured for sale are 
found in the Royal Relief Atlas, published by Messrs. Son- 
nenschein & Allen, London ; price, ten dollars. There are 
thirty-one raised maps in this book, and children never tire 
looking at them. With this atlas as a guide, raised maps 
can be easily made on the moulding-board, either by using 
moulders' sand or clay, or by the use of dry scouring beach- 




Fig. 6. — Dishes and Paint Brushes 

Used in making Sand Maps. 

sand. In using either, it is customary to make the outline 
first on the board in crayon. But it is better to make the 
outline with finger or stick after the sand has been spread 
over the board. 

The dry sand is preferred by some to moulders' sand, 
because it is so clean, needs no water, and can be so readily 
manipulated. It cannot be elevated at an angle, — to some 
a serious objection, to others an advantage. 

In working dry sand, it is never touched with the hands 
directly, but sifted through a small kitchen sieve, poured 

> J. L. Hammett, 352 Washington Street, Boston, Mass., sells a set of excellent 
raised maps, six for 1^3.00. 



I04 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



through a tunnel with a small nozzle, or brushed with 
painters' paint-brushes (see Fig. 6) as follows : — 

A thin layer of sand is sifted over the space to be used, 








Fig. 7.— Sand Map. Outline indicated, (i) 



the outline marked with a sharp stick, and the coast-line 
indicated by brushing away the sand with the smallest brush 
where it is necessary (see Figs. 7, 8) ; then a greater thick- 



APPEARANCE OF THE SAND-MAP 



105 



ness is sifted on the part where the plateaus and highland 
districts arc situated (see Fig. 8). 

The principal mountain chains are now thrown up by 
pouring the sand on through the tunnel ; then the rivers are 
indicated by the use of a common awl or sharp stick, and 




Fig. 8. — The Sand nearly Brushed Away 

around the Coast and Highlands indicated. (2) 



minor elevations between different rivers brought out by 
pouring or sifting the sand (see Fig. 9). After one or 
two maps have been made, the pupil ten or twelve years 
old will quickly make a fine sand map. 

But the teacher needs a large-sized raised map, such as 



io6 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



can be seen across the ordinary schoolroom. Mr. Dean, 
principal of a grammar school in Hyde Park, Mass., has for 
several years taught his classes to make such maps out of a 
composition which readily hardens. The pupils in his gradu- 
ating class make maps of the different countries, about two 




Fig. 9.— The Rivers and Great Lakes 
marked out with Awl, and Elevations more accurately defined. (3) 



feet by three feet. The class as a whole makes one large 
map each year, some eight feet by ten, which is given to 
the school. 

Raised maps have been made in this country of plaster- 
Paris, and in Germany of rubber. 



PUTTY MAPS 107 

After some experiment we have come to the conclusion 
that there is nothing superior to common putty for these 
large raised maps ; for the substance is easily obtained, costs 
about five cents per pound, and only two pounds are needed 
for a very large map, and, unlike the composition, it does not 
harden for several days, so that changes and corrections can 
easily be made, — a matter of considerable importance, — 
and the map can be built up step by step. 

Directions for Making a Large Putty Map. 

1. Make, or have made, of half-inch board, a wooden 
moulding-board, two feet by three feet. Paint it on both 
sides a light blue, two coats. 

2. When dry, mark out with colored crayon or pencil the 
coast-line of the continent to be made. 

3. Then spread over the surface of the grand division a 
thin layer of putty, using the hands, putty-knife, and a small 
roller. Cut out the coast-line distinctly. 

4. The next day, additional putty can be added to indi- 
cate the elevations, table-lands, etc. The long strips of putty 
are put on to mark out the different prominent chains of 
mountains, and a cone of putty half an inch high placed in 
its proper position to illustrate the highest mountain. The 
mountains can be made rough with a sharp pin. 

5. Now mark the courses of the rivers from mountain 
source to mouth with an awl, and fill the little channel with 
tinsel-thread such as ladies use for ornamental work. The 
lakes and inland seas can be covered with tin-foil. When 
the putty finally hardens, these will be held in place. Dif- 
ferent colored putties may be used to represent elevations, 
as on Guyot's physical maps. Red putty is considered a 
good color when only one color is used. 



ro8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

If the putty is in proper condition for setting a pane of 
glass, it can be easily manipulated for the raised map : it 
does not crumble nor crack, and does not need to be 
painted. We have a full set of these maps made by a pupil 
fourteen years of age. They have proved to be most valu- 
able for teaching elevation and drainage. Each one cost 
about $1.25. 

The pupils may be encouraged to make small putty maps 
after the sand map has been introduced. They will enjoy 
the experiment, and some with a little help will succeed 
remarkably well. 

Raised globes are used to considerable extent in Germany^ 
but they are at present too costly to be used in this country. 
Such raised globes could be easily and cheaply made by 
putting putty on a paper globe. 

Physical Maps. 

In some books, "relief" maps are produced by shading, 
in the place of color. The best relief maps, or " relief 
views," ill modern geographies are those in Swinton's Gram- 
mar School Geography. These plates have been photo- 
graphed, and made into very effective slides for the solar 
camera, by Professor C. F. Adams of the Worcester Normal 
School, Mass. 

Physical maps can be represented in three ways : by color, 
by shading, by lines. The first has been largely employed 
in the ordinary geography. The best maps of this kind are 
those made by Professor Guyot, and now published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. Several geographies contain simi- 
lar physical maps. No geography ought to be used as a 
text-book which does not give the child some representation 



HACHURES AND CONTOURS 



109 



of highlands and lowlands. The simplest method of all 
upon a flat surface is by color. Pupils from ten to twelve 
can easily draw physical maps, and properly color them. 
Use for colored crayons those called " Patent Creta Poly- 
color," and sold for twenty cents a box, or those put up by 
the Eagle Pencil Company. After the color has been laid, 
smooth over with a quill or toothpick. 

When the system of shading is made in a more careful 
manner, so as to show the general features of the ground on 
an extremely small scale, hachures are employed. If the 
ground is steep, the lines or hachures are drawn near 
together, so the hills and mountains on 
the map become dark ; if the ground is 
less hilly, the lines are farther apart ; 
and where it is level, the lines are thin- 
ner, and the appearance of the map is 
lighter. In military maps, a definite 
scale of shading is used. Hachures are 
used in the Eclectic series of geogra- 
phies, and in Baedeker's guide-books. 
In Barnes's new geography, the relief is given in a very 
striking way by woodcuts which give panoramic views of 
a whole grand division from ocean to ocean. 

But the third system is the most accurate of all, and is 
rapidly coming into use. Instead of hill-shading, a number 
of curved lines are traced over the country, as in the map 
on p. 269. These curves are called contour-lines. Each 
curve represents the same height, and the distance from 
one curve to another always represents one hundred feet or 
one thousand feet, according to the scale. (See Fig. 10.) 

The best political maps contain clear outlines, moderate 




Fig. 10. — Contour 
Lines round a Hill. 



no METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

colors, variety of type, railroads in red, and the canals 
shown by proper lines ; also head of navigation, population 
of important towns, ocean-currents, steamship routes, etc., 
such as are given in Barnes's geography. 

Hughes' political wall-maps are very good. But we be- 
lieve much more can be taught by the use of maps than 
has ever yet been dreamed of. There should be maps to 
show the trunk railroads, the lines of foreign commerce, the 
leading productions, manufactures, comparative population, 
etc., for the world, as General Walker has shown similar 
facts in the last census report. 

Map-Draniii^. 

This department of geography is frequently a source of 
much vexation among teachers. On no subject pertaining 
to this study is there a wider difference of opinion. The 
opinions now held by the author on this subject are very 
different from those believed and practised a few years ago. 
His present conclusions have been reached after much 
thought and experiment. 

Map-drawing is a means rather than an end. Its great 
object is to help the pupil fix in his memory the geographi- 
cal facts taught. Through the map the pupil should see, as 
through a lens, the beautiful world beyond. Maps, then, 
should be made for use, rather than for beauty. The 
mechanical parts should be done in as easy and as rapid 
a manner as possible, that more time may be given for the 
educational part. 

If the outlines are to be drawn, then some simple system 
of diagram is desirable as helpful in securing, with the least 
possible delay, a reasonable accuracy. 



DRAWING MAPS III 



Different Methods. 



(a) Diagram of squares and rectangles. 

This method is very common, but not on that account 
the best. After examining several of these plans, we believe 
the system invented and published by F. E. Bangs, Wooster 
Grammar School, New Haven, Conn., is the best of the 
kind. 

{b) Instead of artiiicial squares and rectangles, some 
teachers use the parallels and meridians. It is claimed for 
this system, that the pupils learn these lines, and have them 
in memory when needed. This system is now used by Princi- 
pal Henry C. Litchfield, Grammar School No. 79, New York 
City, and very fine maps are made by its use in that school. 

The objections to the above methods are, that a square 
or rectangle is not a natural guide to the drawing of a 
crooked line, hence many oblique lines have to be drawn 
in order to place the coast-hne in its proper position. If 
both squares and oblique lines are drawn, the system is too 
complicated, and map-drawing becomes a burden instead 
of a pleasure. In drawing South America by one plan of 
rectangles, one hundred and seventy words are to be memo- 
rized, and nearly thirty unconnected facts. The same 
objection can be brought against the use of parallels and 
meridians ; viz., too many lines must be learned which are 
of no future value. 

(<:) By triangulation. 

The simplest and easiest method of drawing correct 
outlines thus far examined is Apgar's System of Triangu- 
lation. There is less here to commit to memory than in 
other systems. Instead of a hundred and seventy words, as 



112 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



in one method, to describe the drawing of South America, 
only eighty are necessary, or less than one-half. All the 
memorizing is very easy, because one line usually suggests 
another. Every line used has some relation to the first line. 




Fig. 11. —Diagram, for North America. 

But even this method may be made oppressive to the 
children if the teacher undertakes to teach the triangulation 
by itself as a memory exercise. It should be taught first 
with the outline of the grand division as we show above in 
the original diagram for North America on a similar plan. 



DIAGRAM FOR A CONTINENT II3 

Trlangulation for North America. 

Let the children draw these lines on their maps in light 
pencil-marks ; the teacher should draw with the children, 
on the blackboard outline map. 

Teacher. Draw a straight line from Point Barrow, in the 
northwestern part of North America, to Point Conception ; 
prolong this line till it is met at right angles by a line running 
westward from New Guatemala, Central America. The per- 
pendicular call A B (see Fig. 11); the base, C B. Divide A B 
into four equal parts, and bisect the lower fourth. What point 
on the map is equally distant from A and C .'' 

Class. Strait of Belle Isle. 

T. Then connect Belle Isle and Point Barrow and New 
Guatemala. Find what proportion A D. is of A B. 

C. Three-fourths of A B. 

T. What point west of A F is equally distant from Point 
Barrow and Sitka ? 

C. Uninak Island. 

T. Connect them and find the relation of lines. 

C. Any side of this equilateral triangle is one-fourth of A B. 

T. Connect New Guatemala with the centre of A B. Bisect 
this line, and draw a line from centre to St. Lazaro Point. 
What is the relation of this short line ? 

C. One-eighth of A B. 

T. Draw J C. and J K. What relation is C B to A B .? 

C. Three-eighths of A B. 

In this process the pupils have thought out, in the most 
easy and natural way, the relations and directions of the 
lines, and they will not readily forget them. Let them next 
draw the triangulation by itself, and when completed they 
should study some of the points of coincidence such as will 



114 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

readily occur to pupils and teachers. After a sufficient 
number have been noted, the class is ready to draw the 
contour. 

Progressive Maps. 

By a progressive map we mean one which is made by the 
pupil, a part at a time, as the study of the country proceeds. 
Such a map grows from day to day, and the making of it is 
a never-failing delight to the child. Let us suppose the 
country is North America. 

1. The class first draw the triangulation as previously 
indicated. (See Fig. ii, p. 112.) 

2. Then the outline is drawn, after this subject has been 
carefully considered by teacher and class. (See Fig. 12.) 
The general shape of the country and its characteristic 
features, as indicated by its shores, are now clearly impressed 
upon the child. 

3. After the elevations have been considered, the class 
take the next step, and draw the mountain ranges. (See 

Fig- 1 3-) 

4. Then the rivers are drawn, and their names printed, 
after the drainage has been considered. (See Fig. 14.) 

5. Then the most important of the natural divisions are 
printed, the capitals and important seaports located. 

6. Finally the productions are printed in red ink, the 
animals in some other color, the imports are indicated at 
one side, the directions of currents are shown, etc. 

The map finally will look like the one in Fig. 15, which 
was photographed from a map drawn in the Lewis School, 
Boston, by Master Townsend. (See also Figs. 4 and 1 7.) 



PROGRESSIVE MAPS 



115 




Fig. 12. — Progressive Map. (i) Fig. 13.— Progressive Map. (2) 

The Mountains are now indicated. 
Outline Drawn or lined in from the printed 

form. 







>1 



^^ 





'3'®^^' 



Fig. 15.— Progressive Map. (4) 
irz# Z4. — Progressive Map. (3) The Important Places, Productions, Animals, etc. 
The Drainage is now drawn. are located. 



/l6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Printed Progressive Outline Maps. 

Remembering the statement made in a former part of this 
chapter, that the great object of the map drawn by the pupil 
is to help him retain the facts of geography, it is necessary 
to distinguish between the important and the non-important 
facts to be remembered, that plenty of time may be given 
to the one and not wasted on the other. 

Those schools which have practised any system of map- 
drawing are certainly far in advance of those which draw no 
maps at all ; but the question now arises, Can a farther step 
be taken by having a part of the map drawn by the printing- 
press or by some mechanical means by which it will be done 
quickly and accurately ? 

Many teachers have found great difficulty in teaching the 
various metliods of drawing the outlines of maps, on account 
of the intricate construction-lines required ; and some have 
given up in disgust all systems, and fallen back on sketching 
entirely from memory. To make a good outline of even 
the simplest grand division, by any method, requires the 
memorizing of an immense amount of detail. We were 
convinced several years ago that to require in the lower 
classes of a grammar school the reproduction from mem- 
ory of quite perfect maps, such as were shown the writer 
recently from a certain school in Boston, was an act of 
unnecessary cruelty to children. For several years we have 
urged the teachers of lower classes to use pasteboard^ out- 
lines, by means of which the pupils trace the outline on 
slate or paper. This method has now become quite univer- 
sal for pupils who have studied geography one or two years. 
In visiting Mr. James M. Sawin's school in Providence a few 

1 These pasteboard outlines are now for sale by J. L. Hammett, Boston. Price, 
$3.00 a hundred. 



PRINTED OUri.lNK MAPS II 7 

years ago, we found that he was making outlines for all the 
grades of his school by the use of the cyclostyle. He con- 
sidered them as useful in the ujjper classes as the lower. 
After using such outlines with two different graduating 
classes, and watching the effect, we are convinced that it is 
better to furnish the outlines than to require the pupils to 
memorize them, for the following reasons : — 

1. The furnished outlines avoid the task of memorizing 
the contour of a country, while the act of tracing affords 
ample opportunity for acciuiring a definite knowledge of its 
shape, its windings, indentations, and projections. 

2. They save a large amount of time, which time can be 
given to the more important study of the interior, — the sur- 
face, climate, productions, and their relation to commerce ; 
the growth of cities and towns, and causes of the increase 
of population, etc. 

3. They avoid the memorizing of the more or less 
intricate construction-lines adopted in other systems. 

4. They keep a conrct fon/i of the country under con- 
sideration constantly before the pupil. This advantage is 
obvious. 

5. They favor economy of energy and patience. 

6. They are generally useful. («) These maps may be 
used to indicate, besides the usual facts placed on maps, the 
locations of areas of mineral deposits, of forest growth, of 
prairies, deserts, plateaus, of the various kinds of soil, of sta- 
ple products, of dense population, of manufacturing districts, 
etc. 

i^b) For developing the features of continents, made 
specially prominent in physical geography. 

(r) In connection with the study of ancient history. 



ii8 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



(d) In modern history, the maps of North America and 
the United States may be used for indicating the early dis- 
coveries, the settlements and the general development of the 




Fig. 16.— Heath's Progressive Outline Map of North America. 

As given to the pupil, (i) 

continent, the colonies, and the nation, in connection with 
the text-book study of these features. No time can be 
spared, in history, for practice in map-drawing. 

(<f) For rapid and thorough tests of pupils' knowledge of 



HEATH'S OUTLINE NfAPS 



TI9 



political, descriptive, and physical geography, and of many 
facts in history, no series of questions and answers can equal 
in three hours what may be ascertained, practically, of their 




Fig. 17.— Heath's Progressive Outline Map 
after the pupil has drawn and filled in the map. (Photographed.) (2) 

knowledge of these subjects by these outlines in thirty min- 
utes. Such a map can be easily and rapidly inspected by 
the examiner. 

7. They are pleasing to the pupil. He takes to them at 



I20 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

once ; while the memorizing of the construction-hnes of 
some methods proves a fatiguing burden, and often dulls 
his interest.' 

Large Maps. 

In studying geography or history, large outline maps are 
a prime necessity. These can be made on the board by 
the help of stencil outlines, or by transfer maps. (See 
Chap, v., p. 82). 

We once enlarged a map in this way : A photographic 
map of the United States, called " a slide," was placed in 
the solar camera, and the outline the needed size was 
thrown on a large sheet of manilla paper, and marked in 
with pencil. In this manner we obtained a very perfect 
map, the coast-line, rivers, lakes, etc., being as perfect as 
in the original engraved map from which the photograph 
had been taken.^ 

' But not all teachers have time to make their own outline maps. This want has 
been recently supplied by Messrs. Heath & Co., who have just published a set of 
progressive outline maps of the different grand divisions and the world on Mercator's 
projection. These maps are printed in light ink, on good drawing-paper, ten inches by 
twelve inches in size, being about the same as the pages of most of the common-school 
geographies. The outline without too much detail, some of the adjoining islands, 
a part of the adjacent grand division, a few of the principal circles, a lake or two, 
are the features indicated. Space is left for the pupil to fill in the mountains, rivers 
important political divisions, and print the names of cities, natural divisions, pro- 
ductions, etc., as the study progresses. At the close of the study, such outlines form 
one of the most convenient ways of testing the knowledge of pupils who may be 
required to reproduce the first-mentioned map from memory. 

2 An excellent large outline map of the United States, edited by Professors 
Channing and Hart, Harvard College, useful for all kinds of class instruction, is 
also published and sold for sixty cents, mailed, by Heath & Co., Boston. 



1 



CHAPTER VIII 

PICTURES AND OBJECTS 



Visual images, or pictures of objects, constitute the staple of oui 
ordinary recallings. — Sully. 

121 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



[The list of books pertaining to this chapter will be found on 
p. 132.] 

122 



CHAPTER VIII 
PICTURES AND OBJECTS 

SIGHT — PICTURES AND OBJECTS — ORBIS FICTUS — ILLUSTRATED BOOKS — IMPROVE- 
MENT IN PICTURES — ADVANTAGES OF PICTURES — SOURCES OF PICTURES — LIST 
OF ILLUSTRATED WORKS — OBJECTS — CABINETS — LOAN EXHIBITION — LIST OF 
ARTICLES — HOW TO GATHER A COLLECTION — TROPICAL VEGETATION 

IT is generally agreed among psychologists that sight takes 
the lead as the channel of perception. Spencer says, 
" The child's restless observation, instead of being ignored 
or checked, should be diligently ministered to, and made 
as accurate as possible." Sully further asserts : " Whatever 
tends, like a picture or object, to excite a pleasurable state 
of mind in the child at the time of learning, will arouse the 
attention and deepen the impression made upon the mind, 
and consequently the ability to recall the matter which has 
been thus presented." Dr. Galton, in his recent book on 
Human Faculty, instances that eighty-eight English persons 
out of one hundred who were tested remembered the scene 
at the breakfast-table by mental imagery. In a similar test 
made with our present class of boys, all but one could recall 
a vivid picture of the breakfast-table. When we pronounced 
the name Colorado River, nearly all reported that they 
formed a picture of a river flowing between lofty walls of 
stone, such as they had previously seen shown to them by 
Adams's solar camera. Three- fourths of the class recalled 
the history lesson by seeing the picture of the printed page 



124 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPH\ 

We once placed in the hands of a child, two and a half 
years old, Prang's natural-history books, containing those 
richly colored pictures of birds and animals, and also a set 
of paper animals. In a very short time this little specimen 
learned the names of thirty different animals, which she 
would repeat with the greatest glee. She had learned 
these names without the slightest effort. Seeing, learning, 
enjoying, were identical to her young mind. 

There are two practical ways of conveying knowledge to 
children in the schoolroom through the sense of sight, — 
one by means of pictures, and one by means of objects. 
The latter is far more instructive, the former more con- 
venient and more widely applicable. The small plant, the 
piece of wood, the insect, the fruit, and the specimen of 
atone can be used conveniently as objects ; but not the big 
tree of California, the Rocky Mountain peak, the Yosemite 
Valley, the elephant, or the Brooklyn Bridge, The teacher, 
then, should use objects as far as practicable, and supply 
the deficiency with pictures. 

The universal use of pictures at the present time, in so 
many departments of education and business, is one weighty 
proof of their value. But it has not always been so. Two 
hundred years ago Comenius made the first pictorial text- 
book, which was called " Orbis Pictus," and which for one 
hundred years was a favorite with old and young in Europe. 
The illustrations, however, were very inferior. Years rolled 
on, but no second Comenius appeared. Art confined itself 
to Madonnas, instead of trying to help students understand 
their stupid text-books. A very rare and costly geography, 
called the "Geographical Grammar," published in 1754, 
does not contain a single picture, but it has many fine maps 



KINDS OF PICTURES 



125 



and much red type. Forty years ago pictures began to be 
used ; but what simple works they were, can be learned by 
examining an edition of Mitchell's Geography, published 
in 1848. The great contrast between the illustrations now 
given in text-books, and those employed forty years ago, 
is vividly shown by the pictures given in Figs. 18 and 19. 
Even fifteen years ago pictures were quite sparingly used, 
and the quality was poor. During the last ten years there 





ii^-'^''v""^ 






* 



Fig. 18 .— Preaching to the Indians. 
Showing style of wood-engraving used in text-books forty years ago. 

has been made, especially in this country, immense prog- 
ress in the art of wood-engraving. This is shown by com- 
paring the pictures in " Harper's Magazine " of a recent date 
with a number printed twelve or fifteen years ago. " Har- 
per's," the "Century," and ''St. Nicholas," with their monthly 
instalment of beautiful pictures, have educated the people 
to appreciate and demand good pictures, and plenty of 
them. It is certain that pictures are being used to convey 
information as well as pleasure, more and more every year. 



126 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



The ordinary illustrations in quality and quantity, such as 
are found in "Around the World" by Prime, "Compendium 
of Geography and Travel " by Stanford, " Holland and its 
People " by De Amicis, and Ober's " Mexico," no longer sat- 
isfy the public reader. He begins to call for works of superb 
and costly illustrations, such as can be found only in "India" 
by Rousselet, "Nile Sketches" by Werner, "Spain" by Davil- 




Fig. 19.— New style Picture. 
Showing style of wood-engraving at the present day. 

lion, "South America" by Marcoy, and " Egypt " by Ebers. 
Photographs are now being used largely for illustrating books. 
Persons of taste and leisure will find both pleasure and 
information in examining such costly works as " China " by 
Thompson, " Thebes " by Abney, the " Royal Photograph 
Album of India" by Wilson, "Jerusalem " by Tristram, the 
"Works of France " in five volumes, and many others in the 
large public libraries. One set of these books would cost 



PRESENT USE OF PICTURES I27 

a small fortune ; but there are books finely illustrated with 
photographs and chromos, which come within the purchasing 
power of common people, such as Leyland's " South Africa," 
Jordan's "Trip to Burmah," Rein's "Japan," Lady Brassey's 
"Tahiti," the " Indian Alps" by a Lady Pioneer, "Wonders 
of the Yosemite " by Kneeland, etc. 

Most of our text-books now, even the readers and spellers, 
are handsomely illustrated. Upon some of the new geog- 
raphies, a wealth of illustration has been lavished, until the 
pictures have become by far the principal and most impor- 
tant part of the book. Juvenile magazines and books of 
travel are to-day better illustrated than royal editions were 
a few years ago. For proof of this statement examine such 
books as "The Boy Travellers " by Knox, McCabe's "Young 
Folks Abroad," "Little People of Asia" by Miller, Hale's 
" Family Flight," and " Zig-Zag Journeys" by Butterworth. 

Every year lecturers are using pictures and charts more 
and more to convey information to their listeners. By a 
series of carefully prepared charts and pictures, President 
Walker of the School of Technology was able to make the 
ordinarily dry and uninteresting statistics of a census-report 
eloquent and impressive. 

Business men also have learned the great value of illustra- 
tion to help in commerce and trade. Chromos, photo- 
graphs and lithograi)hs are in constant use. The business 
man always appeals to the eye. 

Advantages of Pictures. 

I. They convey correct ideas to children. Read a de- 
scription of a place, building, scene, or the face and appear- 
ance of a famous man, and then look upon a picture or 



128 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

photograph of the same, and notice how much better the 
latter satisfies the demands of the mind. How very Httle 
a person would obtain from the excellent descriptions in 
Thompson's "China," compared with what he would derive 
from the photographs, if he could use only one method of 
obtaining the information ! 

2. Pictures convey this accurate information very quickly. 
There is less need of drill and review. 

3. They create great interest, as the children have some- 
thing to look at. They introduce variety. 

4. Attention is easily secured. 

5. Discipline is greatly lessened. 

6. Information thus obtained where interest and attention 
are good, is not easily forgotten. Once show a class of fifty 
pupils a picture of some small town, and forty-five or more 
will be able to tell you something about the place. Tell the 
same class half a dozen facts about another place of equal 
importance, and only a few will remember with equal accu- 
racy. 

A few teachers, who employ pictures, sometimes make 
the mistake of showing too many during a term, and, also, 
of showing too many at one time. This is likely to lead to 
confusion, and to the feeling that school is nothing more 
^han a picture-gallery,, and children were made to be enter- 
tained. The teacher must guard against this wrong impres- 
sion by showing only a few pictures at one time, and these 
should all bear on one subject. A recitation should follow 
the exhibit to test the knowledge obtained, and cultivate the 
power of observation. 



I 



WHERE Tt) KIND PICTURES 1 29 



Sources of Pictures. 



If teachers wish for pictures to ilkistrate their geography 
lessons, where can they obtain them ? We answer by telling 
you where we obtained those in our possession. We re- 
ceived the first ones from the pupils. In the younger 
classes, children will, with a little encouragement from the 
teacher, bring hundreds of pictures, and gladly give them to 
the school. A teacher in the Everett School, Boston, has 
thousands of pictures, which she uses very skilfully in her 
daily class-work ; and a very large part of them have been 
contributed by her pupils. Teachers and pupils can find 
quite a supply of serviceable pictures among the numerous 
advertisements. Western railroads, for several years back, — 
and recently Eastern railroads, — have published and freely 
given away valuable maps, and tourists' and excursionists' 
guides under the pleasant name of " Summer Saunterings." ' 
They are generally filled with splendid pictures, and such as 
would be helpful in the schoolroom. Houghton, Mifflin, 
& Co. publish and give away an illustrated catalogue of 
American authors, which is invaluable. John James & Sons 
issue a little calendar to advertise their needles, which con- 
tains a fine picture of Shakspeare's house. A prominent 
fur store in Boston once sent out a series of photographs of 
Harvard University. A friend recently sent us his circular 
of "Western Investments," and on the front page we found 
an excellent picture of a Western prairie-home. A firm in 
Boston has been sending out, to those who forwarded a 
few postage-stamps, a series of fine chromo-pictures of the 
different spices. Many advertisements have good pictures 
of Niagara Falls, the Old Mill, or Washington Monument. 

' See page 79. 



130 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Hundreds of others will come to your hands just as soon 
as you begin to look and to inquire. 

Very valuable pictures are found in the best geographies. 
If the other parts of the geography are tied with a string 
before passing, the child will have no temptation to "peep " 
at pictures not bearing on the subject. 

Numerous available pictures may also be obtained from 
the illustrated papers. In the March (1885) "Century" 
nearly fifty pictures are published, which would naturally be 
used by a wise teacher during a year's instruction, — fifty 
useful pictures for thirty-five cents ! " Harper's " July ( 1 885 ) 
number is nearly as good. Many of the missionary maga- 
zines contain helpful pictures. Each number of the " Mis- 
sionary Herald " (published at i Somerset Street, Boston) 
contains several good pictures and interesting matter for 
"Young People." "The Mission Day Spring " (pubhshed 
at same place, only twenty cents a year) has much valuable 
illustrative matter. "China's Milhons " (published at 12 
Paternoster Buildings, London) is illustrated with good 
pictures, many of them being taken from such valuable 
books as Thompson's " China. "^ 

Pictures of this grade need to be arranged and classified 
to be of much use. The most economical way to do this 
is to cut the pictures out, and arrange alphabetically in the 
Standard Letter- File. Then if you wish to illustrate to 
the class the habits of the camel, for instance, you take from 
your picture-album a representation of the above animal, 
and hang it on the wall of the room, or mount it for the 
time being in a temporary frame. Some teachers find a 
panorama, in which all available pictures pertaining to one 
subject are mounted on long strips of cloth, a very conven- 

* Other useful magazines for illustrations are the New-England Magazine, Bos- 
ton ; Scribner's, New York ; and the Califomian, San Francisco. 



1 



A LIST OF ILLUSTRATED WORKS I3I 

lent form for review. Others, with a Httle natural talent for 
sketching, can readily draw effective pictures for schoolroom 
use upon the blackboard in colored crayon. If these pic- 
tures are sketched upon paper, pasteboard, or cloth, they can 
be preserved from year to year. Mrs. Blanchard, of the 
Shurtleff School, South Boston, has prepared for her own 
use in her room a large number of splendid pictures, drawn 
upon black cambric with common white or colored crayon. 
After the crayon has been treated with artist's fixative, it 
does not rub, and these pictures are easily kept from one 
season to another. 

A step in advance of using the picture is the use of the 
medallion where it is possible. Mr. Lyford, principal of 
the Winslow-street Grammar School, Worcester, has created 
great enthusiasm in his history classes, by showing a set of 
fine medallions which he made himself, of the great men 
of the country. 

Illustrated Works. 

The principal source for pictures is, however, found in 
illustrated books. In addition to those already given, your 
attention is called to the following list. First of all we 
should place these five different geographical readers, viz., 
Blackie's, Whitehall, PhiHps's, " The World at Home," and 
•'Standard.'" Each of the series contains six volumes, well 
graded for the various classes of a grammar school. The 
United States, however, in each case is inadequately treated, 
as these are all English publications. The last named, the 
•' Standard," is written in the best style, but the illustrations 
are the poorest. 

We present below a short list of finely illustrated books, 
which have been very helpful in the schoolroom in teaching 
the various countries. 

I Published by William Ibbister, London. 



132 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Nearly all the books are illustrated with woodcuts. A 
list of very costly books is given near the end of chap. xx. 



The "World by the Fire Side, Kirby. 
Througfh Spain on Donkey Back. 
Wanderings in Four Continents. 
The Bodley Family. 
Rip Van Winkle's Journeys. 
American Explorations in 

the Ice Zones Nourse. 

Pen and Pencil Pictures, 

Manning AND others. 

[There are about a dozen of the last 
named books, all superbly illustrated.] 
Voyage of the Vega . Nordenskiold. 
Yachting in the Arctic Seas, Lamont. 
Greenland . .... . Prof. Rink. 

Homes of Americans . . . Lamb. 
Northern Pacific Railroad, Smalley. 

The Great South King. 

New Colorado Hayes. 

Brazil ; Smith. 

Guiana Thurn. 

Land of Bolivar Spence. 

Patagonia Beerbohm. 

Peru Squier. 

South America Bates. 

Interior of Africa . . . Burchall. 

Africa Jones. 

Stanley's Congo, and Through the 

Dark Continent. 
African Travel . . . Southworth. 
Up the Nile . . . Miss Edwards. 

Egypt LoRiNG. 

Egypt Stuart. 

Pyramids of Gizeh Vyse. 

Morocco De Amicis. 

Sportsof Southern Africa . Harris. 

China Colquhoun. 

Mongolia Prejevalsky. 

The Middle Kingdom . . Williams. 
Palestine, Burt, Tristram, Tillotson. 
East of the Jordan . . . Merrill. 
A Civilian's Wife in India . . King. 
Rob Roy on the Jordan Macgregor. 
England to Delhi . . . Matheson. 

Illustrated India Stone. 

Gold Fields in India . . Jennings. 
Japan and the Japanese . Humbert. 



The Mikado's Empire . . . Griffis. 

China and Japan Oliver. 

Unexplored Beluchistan . . Floyer. 
The Black Sea, Caucasus, etc., 

Cunynghame. 

In the East Field. 

Babylon and Nineveh . Newman. 

Turkestan Schuyler. 

Through Siberia .... Landsell. 

Australia Powell. 

Victoria in 1880. 

Head Hunters of Borneo . . Bock. 

Fire Fountains . . Miss Cummings. 

Coral Lands Cooper. 

The Far East Macleod. 

New Zealand . . Van Hochelette. 

Tyrol Waring. 

Etchings on the Loire . . George. 

Normandy Macquoid. 

Rivers of France Turner. 

The Bride of the Rhine . .Waring. 

Berlin Vigetilly. 

A Tour in Greece .... Farrer. 
Picturesque Holland . . Harvard. 
Sketches and Studies in Italy, 

Symonds. 
Land of the Midnight Sun, 

Du Chaillu. 
Voyage in The Sunbeam, 

Mrs. Brassey. 
Voyage of The Challenger, Thomson. 
Turkey in Europe. 

Siberia Seebohm. 

Caspian Region Marvin. 

Spanish Vistas .... Lothrop. 
Switzerland and the Swiss. 
Round the World. 
Curtis, Kingston, Prime, Hinchliff, 
Leyland, Simpson. 
Southern Europe . . . Rodwell. 
Recent Polar Voyages. 
New Hebrides .... Markham. 
Nassau and the Bahamas . . Ives. 
Between the Amazon and the Andes, 
Mulhall, 
Le Tour du Monde. 



CABINETS 133 

Objects or Specimens. 

Real objects will be found greater and more impressive 
than pictures or medallion heads, to illustrate any study. 
The question will immediately arise, How can poor teachers 
obtain these things ? Do you expect us to purchase them 
from our small salaries ? No, not exactly. We simply ask 
you to begin directly a museum or a cabinet. Locate this 
collection somewhere in the school-building, in an empty 
room, unfurnished attic, closet, chest of drawers, cabinet, 
book-case, drawer ; or, if you can do no better, in a neat 
box on your desk. Put in this collection some few articles 
to start it, such as specimens of Colorado stones recently 
advertised by H. H. Tammen & Co. of Denver, Colo., or 
stones from your own home collection, or some specimens 
of tropical vegetation. 

Having done so much, then fill up your cabinet by 
persistent begging and borrowing. Educational begging is 
always honorable. Ask your pupils to bring objects to 
illustrate geography, history, biography, and other studies, 
or whatever is curious. You can call it '" A Collection of 
Educational Curios." 

At first you may encourage the pupils to enjoy the benefit 
of such a collection, by suddenly proposing that next Friday 
will be the great loan day for Europe, or whatever country 
you happen to be studying. Ask each pupil to bring some 
little article from home, which came directly or indirectly 
from across the Atlantic. The results, after the class become 
interested, will perhaps surprise the faithless. One of the 
lady teachers in the Lewis Grammar School, Boston, in a 
class of boys between eleven and thirteen, had, last year. 



134 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

over two hundred interesting articles, brought in this way 
as a loan exhibition, to illustrate three different countries. 
One of the articles was worth three hundred dollars, and 
another of priceless value because not easily duplicated. 

Another teacher in a lower class of girls, tried the same 
experiment with more gratifying results, having one hundred 
and twenty-four articles brought in one afternoon to illustrate 
Europe. 

Miss Backup, Dearborn School, Boston, has a class of 
girls, third year of study in a grammar school, whose parents 
are not blessed with great riches ; yet the members of this 
class were so enthusiastic about the loan exhibition, that 
they contributed the following three hundred and seventy- 
three different articles : — 

Cotton, cotton-seed, rice, tobacco, sweet-potatoes, sugar-cane, 
sugar, molasses, coffee, vanilla, vanilla-bean, cacao-bean, chocolate, 
lemons, orange-tree, orange, dates, figs, bananas, cloves, nutmegs, 
ginger-root, ginger, cochineal, indigo, sponge, coral, southern-moss, 
wheat, flour, corn, rye, oats, barley, hemp, flax-seed, wine, raisins 
(Cal.), grapes, white wool, black wool, onion, beef, pork, sea-beans, 
sea-oats, tonga-beans, banana-seeds, resin, turpentine, petroleum, 
sulphur, salt, rock-salt, coal, furs, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, tin, 
iron, ores containing gold, silver, copper, quicksilver, iron, lead, 
silver and mica, glass and mica, iron pyrite. 

Quartz, mica, lime-rock, garnets, granite, marble, meteor, basalt, 
coquina, satin spar from Colorado, opal from New Mexico, copper 
pyrite from Utah, chalcedony from Wyoming, azurite from Utah, 
orthite from Nevada, malachite from Arizona, agate from Wyoming, 
jasper from Wyoming, mahogany, rosewood, ebony, oak, maple, red 
cedar, hickory, sea-horse, skates' teeth, seal's head, walrus's tooth, 
shark's egg, conch-shell, Indian arrows, buffalo's horns, whale's tooth, 
vegetable ivory. 

Buffalo's hoofs, petrified honeycomb, partridge's tail, deer's foot, 



LOAN COLLECTIONS 1 35 

Indian relics, shell from California, 172 stereoscope views, 53 picture- 
books, 20 pictures. 

Clay from Gay Head, stone from the top of Mount Washington, 
petrified wood from California, stones showing the impression of 
leaves and shells, California coal cut in the shape of a heart, several 
wreaths of shell and fish-scale work done by the negroes of the West 
Indies, tortoise-shell and a turtle-shell, a piece of marble from the 
Washington Monument, pottery from the West Indies, stones con- 
taining garnets, gulf-weed from Gulf Stream, shells from the West 
Indies, a rock from New Hampshire, asbestos from New Hampshire, 
doll's hat from Florida, stone from Niagara made by the spray, 
curiosities from Boston fire, a piece of granite from Grant's tomb, 
Chinese god from California, a piece of the old elm-tree, petrified 
fish's eye. 

These specimens illustrated North America. 

Miss Lynch of the same school, in a small class of girls, 
met with equal success when her pupils had a loan collec- 
tion on Europe. 

A few exhibitions of this character will create great inter- 
est in the permanent collection. A little quiet persevering 
asking, a readiness on the part of the teacher to accept 
gladly at first any specimen brought, to thank the donor, 
and place his name on the marking-tag, will soon bear fruit. 
By and by your pupils will in turn become first-class beg- 
gars, and then your success is assured. 

Several teachers have told us of their successful attempts 
in this line. Miss Spare of Cambridge, Mass., has several 
hundred specimens, nearly all given by her pupils, who 
come from the homes of the ordinary people. Mr. Pritch- 
ard, master of the Comins School, Boston, possesses a very 
large and well-adapted collection contributed by his second 
class in about three years. This museum contains many 
valuable coins and historical relics, as well as specimens to 



136 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

illustrate geography ; every one of the many hundred arti- 
cles was given by the children. 

Encouraged by the efforts of this gentleman, we began 
three years ago a collection which has enlarged by a little 
individual help from teachers, till it has become a real aux- 
iliary in school work. There are now several hundred valu- 
able specimens belonging to the collection ; " valuable," we 
mean, for school purposes. North America, Europe, and 
Asia are best represented. The quickness with which the 
children responded to requests for articles astonished us, 
and encourages us to advise every teacher to start immedi- 
ately a collection. Pupils, several years after leaving school, 
have remembered the cabinet, and in their wanderings 
have tried to supplement deficiencies. One boy, who was 
a "trial," sent me from California by express a centipede 
and a " Pacific potato-bug ; " another, from South Carolina, 
a fine specimen of a cotton-plant ; a third, from New York, 
different specimens of wood-pulp. 

Finding the children did not bring in specimens of tropi- 
cal vegetation to the extent desired, we helped them in this 
direction by purchasing several specimens of tropical flora 
from Jamaica. The articles thus added, and which have 
always created more or less interest, consist of sections of 
"exogenous and endogenous woods, sea-bean, coffee, sweet 
sap ; frond, spadix, and shell of the cocoa-nut ; bread-fruit 
(dried), chocolate (both nut and leaf), pineapple fibre, 
hennequen, bow-string hemp, bamboo, mangrove, lace bark, 
cinchona bark, cinnamon bark, Brazilian wood. Brazil-nuts, 
cassava (root and leaf), leaves of common tropical vegeta- 
tion, and about forty specimens of tropical ferns. 



CHAPTER IX 

MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES 



To interest children we must adopt a better mode of instruction, 
by which the children are less left to themselves, less thrown upon 
unwelcome employment of passive listening, but more aroused by 
questions, and animated by illustrations. — Pestalozzi. 

iZ7 



BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 



1,000 Ways of i,ooo Teachers. 

Various Geographical Readers. 

Such Educational Papers as The American Teacher, 

Popular Educator, and Teachers' Institute. 

Modern Methods. — Geography. 
138 



CHAPTER IX 



MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES 

DIFFERENT SIZES — DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SCALES — SURFACE ZONES — BUSY 
WORK — SKETCH-MAPS— ODDS AND ENDS — CURRENTS — REVIEW CHARTS — VIEW 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY — PAPERS AND NEWS — PRESENT RULERS — CHARTS 
FROM CENSUS REPORTS — GEOGRAPHICAL SCRAP-BOOK — SOUBRIQUETS OF STATES 
— GEOGRAPHICAL COMPOSITIONS — FORESTS AND DESERTS — UPHEAVALS AND 
DEPRESSIONS — GEOGRAPHY AND DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 

Comparative Sizes. 

THE size of the water compared with the continents 
and islands is easily shown to small children by such a 
comparison as is represented in Fig. 20. 
The comparative size of the continents, or 
grand divisions as thev should be called, is 



CCNTINT.MTS 




ISLANDS 








vj&reg 






Fig. 20. 



_ EUKOPli>:=:r-i^ 

■ h'^tr'ai.i*-- ^t 



■Size of all the Continents and Islands 
Compared with area of the water. 

Fig: 21. — CuRtments 

forcibly presented to the eye, by a simple Compared with each 

1 . , . . . T-" other in size. 

drawmg such as is given in rig. 21. 

When the Americas are united, they are about the same 
size as Asia. '39 



140 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Size of Other Countries. 

We have very inadequate ideas of the comparative size of 
other countries. To help correct these wrong impressions, 
the teacher is advised to enlarge the map of the United 
States given in Fig. 22, and represent the same on the 
blackboard, or, better, as a chart to be preserved and used 
year after year. 

The author is indebted to Professor Charles F. Adams, 
State Normal School, Worcester, Mass., for the idea. By 
this method, old and young can remember the comparisons. 

Further Comparisons in Area. 

Children become very much interested in making these 
comparisons in area. They can usually discover striking 
similarities for themselves, and delight to represent them on 
the board for the entertainment of their school friends. 
The teacher should encourage all this work, as it creates an 
interest in the subject ; and these little map-pictures are 
never forgotten. Further suggestions in this line of teaching 
are given in Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28. 

Comparative Size of Mountains. 

Draw upon the blackboard a horizontal line. Place at 
the extreme left a small arc to represent the height of the 
nearest hill. If this is about five hundred feet, represent 
its height by half an inch in the curve of the arc. This 
will make a scale of one inch to every thousand feet. Then 
represent some well-known mountain in the State, or, per- 
haps, the highest peak. Let the pupils calculate with you 
the size of the arc to represent the highest point of land in the 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



grand division of North America ; then the Andes, finally 
the Himalayas. Represent the distances in miles, instead 
of feet, as more easily remembered, and better understood. 





. . . Fig. 27. 

Showing the number of States equal 
in area to France or Germany. 



Fig. 28. 
Showing what States 
equal in area Eng- 
land, Belgium, etc. 



If the^ i IS no hill near for comparison, take a tall church- 
spire or monument. Begin with something the children see. 




3 ^k Sk 

Fig. 29. — Comparative Size ot Mountains. 
To be enlarged, and drawn on blackboard. 

The scale when complete will appear on the blackboard 
as it does in Fig. 29. 

Comparative Sizes of Cities. 

Suppose you are teaching in some city like Providence, 
containing about a hundred thousand inhabitants, and you 



SIZE OF CITIES 147 

wish to convey to the class an adequate idea of the size 
of some larger cities. Talk to them about the city in which 
they are now living. Ask them to look up the population 
of several other places, a list of which you write upon the 
board, beginning with. — 

Providence, about 125,000. 

New Orleans, about 250,000. 

Boston (1887), about 450,000. 

Chicago (1887), about 1,000,000. 

New York, about 1,500,000. 

Paris, about 2,400,000. 

London, about 5,600,000. 



PROVIDENtL 
mVOBlIi 
BOSTON. 

CHICAdOM 

PARIS- 
LONDON 



7WS 



Fig, 30. — Comparative Size in Population of Various Cities. 

Ask the class to take large sheets of paper (foolscap), 
and draw a vertical line at the left along a blue-ruled line 
across the width of the paper. Call the width between two 



148 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



blue-ruled lines equal to two hundred thousand inhabitants. 
When the scale is complete, it will be in the form shown in 
Fig. 30. 

Comparisons of Population 

may also be shown to the eye by maps 
as in Fig. 31, where London and its 
suburbs are shown to equal in the num- 
ber of their inhabitants all New England 
and New Jersey. 




statistics 



Fig. 31. - 
London compared in pop- 
ulation with New Eng- 
land and New Jersey. 



can be made very attractive to pupils 
by the aid of diagrams. The annual 
expenditures of the United States, 

based on the last census, may be represented by rectangles 

as follows : — 



Unit. $100,000,000. 



Tobacco, $600,000,000. 

Or it can be made more effective by using the pyramid of 
blocks, Fig. 32. The children will be interested in learning 
that for public education the United States spent $85,000,- 
000 : for liquor and tobacco the United States spent $1,- 
500,000,000, or 17^ times as much. 



Facts given to the Eye by Circles. 

A very easy method to help children remember common 
statistics is to employ the circle so easily drawn upon the 



TEACHING THROUGH THE EYE 



149 




Fig. 32.— Startling Statistics. 





Fig. 33.— Annual Products in Manufacturing and Agriculture 
Compared in Two States. 



150 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

blackboard by pupil or teacher. The divisions of the circle 
can be made all the more vivid by using colored crayons. 
A few facts are thus given in Figs. 33, 34, 35, 36. 

Mails. 

A report of the foreign mails and trans-Pacific mails, 
taken from the morning paper, such as is given below, will 
afford a very interesting review lesson. 

Let each child in turn 'point out on the outline map the 
route of a letter in going from Boston to Cuba, Mexico, 
France, the Fiji Islands, China, etc. 

Foreign Mails. 

^l^^ For Cuba, by rail to Tampa, Fla., and thence by steamer z>ia 
Key West, Fla., close at this office daily at 3 p.m. 

5i^^ The overland mail for Mexico now closes at the post-office, 
Boston, at 5.30 p.m. daily, instead of 7.30 P.M. 

For St. Pierre and Miquelon, via Halifax from Boston, Thursday, 
March 29, at 6 p.m. 

For Scotland direct, specially addressed, only per steamer " Ancho- 
ria," from New York, Friday, March 30, at 5 P.M. 

For Netherlands via Rotterdam, specially addressed, only per 
steamer " Rotterdam," from New York, Friday, March 30, at 5 p.m. 

For France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, via 
Havre, also specially addressed for other European countries, per 
steamer " La Bretagne " from New York, Friday, March 30, at 5 p.m. 

For Central America and South Pacific ports, except Chili, via 
Aspinwall, also specially addressed for Guatemala and Costa Rica, 
per steamer " City of Para," from New York, Friday, March 30, at 
7.30 p.m. 

For Brazil, Chili, and the La Plata countries, via Rio Janeiro, per 
steamer " Procida " from Baltimore, Friday, March 30, at 3 p.m. 

For Nova Scotia, via Yarmouth, per steamer from Boston, Friday, 
March 30, at 9 A.M. 




Fig. 34. — Comparative Size in Area, of Different Parts of tue 
United States. 




Fig, 35. — Comparative Size of the Different Grand Divisions 




Fig. 36. — Comparative Strength in Number of the Different 
Creeds of the 'World. 



152 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

For Europe, including specially addressed for France, Italy, 
Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal, via Queenstown and Liverpool, 
per steamer " Umbria " from New York, Friday, March 30, at 5 p.m. 

For Cura9oa and Venezuela, per steamer " Caracas," from New 
York, Friday, March 30, at 7.30 p.m. 

For Cuba and Porto Rico, via New Orleans, Saturday, March 31, 
at 3 P.M. 

For Halifax, N.S., and St. Pierre, Miquelon, via Halifax, per 
steamer from Boston, Saturday, March 31, at 11 a.m. 

2!^=" Date and hour given are those of closing at the post-ofifice, 
Boston. 

Trans-Pacific Mails. 

For Australia, Fiji Islands, New Zealand, Samoan, and Sandwich 
Islands, per steamer " Mariposa," from San Francisco, April 4. Mail 
will close at Boston post-office Friday, March 30, at i P.M. 

For China and Japan and the East Indies (except British India), 
per steamer " Oceanic," from San Francisco. Mail will close at the 
Boston post-office March 31, at 5.30 P.M. 

For British Columbia, via Victoria, per ship from San Francisco, 
about April 6. 

For British Columbia, via Victoria, per steamer from San Fran- 
cisco, about April 13. 

For Tahiti and Marquesas Islands, per ship from San Francisco, 
about April 30. 

For Society Islands, per ship "City of Papeti," from San Fran- 
cisco, April 30. 

"^^^ Letters for the Pacific steamers should be deposited in the 
post-office, Boston, eight or nine days before the sailing of the 
steamers. 

Comparative Shapes. 

Beginners in geography will be greatly interested in such 
comparisons as are given below from Monteith^s Manual of 
Geography. See Fig. 37. Let the children discover others, 
and try to draw them. Some are very easy to find : others 
are easy to represent. 



COMPARATIVE SHAPES 



153 









Fig 37. —Shapes of Countries. 



154 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Plant Distribution. 

The plants useful to man are distributed in zones, which 
may be thus represented. (In lower classes, the teacher can 
give the pupils all the facts, and let them learn them by 
copying in blank-books, by conversation upon the same, 
and by bringing specimens of as many as possible, which 
specimens should be arranged in similar order upon a table, 
and then the names printed on outline maps.) 



Zone. 


Latitude. 


Characteristic Plants. 


Arctic 


66° to 90° 


Mosses, lichens, saxifrage. 


Subarctic .... 


55° to 60° 


Nortliern grains, berries, pines. 


Temperate .... 


45° to 55° 


Wheat and northern grains, or- 
chard fruits, maples, oaks, etc. 


Warm Temperate . 


25° to 45° 


Wheat and tropical grains, olive, 
fig, grape, and citron. 


Tropical 


0° to 25° 


Sugar, rice, maize, spices, and 
palms. 



Maps on Large and Small Scales. 

Most maps of a particular section of a country in the 
common text-book are drawn on a scale of a hundred and 
fifty miles to an inch ; while the grand divisions are usually 
as small as six hundred miles to the inch, or, as the English 
always say, i : 38,000,000, which means, one inch or one 
foot on the map represents thirty-eight million inches or 
feet in distance in the country. 

Hence such maps cannot give very many of the details 
of a country, and pupils are very apt to get wrong impres- 
sions. 



MAPS ON DIFFERENT SCALES 



155 



The difference between the real mouths of the Po, for 
instance, and the common representation of the same, is 
brought out by contrast in Fig. 38. 





Fig. 38. — 7726 Mouth of the Po 
As it is seen on a large map, and as it is represented on most maps in text-books 

Produftions in Color. 

Pupils like to work in color. This natural liking can be 
turned to good account by allowing them to represent by a 
special color each production of the country, or the deserts 
and the forests. Some pupils will use a dozen colors on the 



156 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

map of the United States. A key to the map at one side 
explains the use of the colors. Colored crayon-pencils 
answer every purpose for this work. 

Chart of Comparative Size of Rirers. 

In the People's Family Atlas of the World, pp. 10 and ii, 
will be found the comparative length of the important rivers 
of the world, illustrated, and drawn to scale. Let the 
teacher begin with some river near home, seen and visited 
more or less by a majority of the pupils, and draw this river 
at the left to a certain scale ; as, for instance, one inch for 
every ten miles or for every hundred miles. Then draw 
other selected rivers in different countries till the longest 
is sketched. 

Chart of Animals arranged according to Climate. 

On a large square of manilla-paper four feet square, draw 
a circle three and a half feet in diameter. Divide the circle 
into zone-belts. Reproduce the picture on p. 22, Warren's 
Primary Geography, or in the People'' s Family Atlas, by 
pasting on the manilla-paper animals cut out of paper from 
the newspapers, or, better, from Little Folks' Menagerie, 
published by McLoughlin Brothers, New York, and sold in 
all toy-stores for ten cents. 

Surface Zones. 

Keith Johnston thus contrasts the surface zones of the 
northern and southern hemispheres. From this can be 
made a very interesting series of exercises in review. 



SURFACE ZONES 



15' 



Northern Hemisphere. 



Southern Hemisphere. 



(i) The Equatorial Forest Region. 

The tropical forests of Central America, of Florida and the West 
Indies; the "selvas" of the Amazon basin and of Guiana; the forests 
of Central Africa, of Ceylon, and Southern India, of Farther India, 
the East India Islands, and of Northern Australia. 

(2) The Tropical Pasture Lands. 



The "llanos" of the Orinoco 
in South America, the pasture- 
lands east and west of Lake Chad 
in North Africa, and the Ganges 
basin in India. 



The pasture-lands of the Upper 
Parana and Paraguay river basins 
in South America, the grassy 
plains of the Zambesi in Africa, 
the " Plains of Promise " in North 
Australia. 



(3) The Deserts. 



The "great basin " of the Salt 
Lake in North America and the 
" American Desert ; " the Sahara 
of North Africa; the deserts of 
Arabia and Persia; the "Gobi" 
and the " Thur " deserts in Asia. 



The deserts of the "Gran Cha- 
co " and the " Salinas " of the 
Argentine Republic in South Am- 
erica; the Kalahari Desert in 
South Africa ; and the great inte- 
rior desert of Australia. 



(4) The Temperate Pasture Lands. 



The treeless " prairies " of 
North America, the "steppes" of 
South Russia and of Central Asia, 
and the pasture-lands on the bor- 
ders of Mongolia. 



The " pampas " of Patagonia, 
the Argentine Republic, and Bue- 
nos Ayres ; the grassy uplands of 
the north-east of Africa; the 
" downs " of Australia. 



(5) The Temperate Forests. 



Forests of British North Amer- 
ica, from Alaska to Canada and 
Labrador ; the woods of Sweden, 
Norway, and Russia ; and the for- 
ests of Siberia. 



The forests of South-western 
Patagonia and of Tierra del Fue- 
go, of Tasmania and New Zea- 
land. 



^5S 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



(6) The Barren Tundra Regions 

The " barren grounds " and 
" sterile regions " of North Amer- 
ica, of Iceland, and the "Tun- 
dras " of Siberia. 



Kerguelen Island, in the South 
Indian Ocean, sterile and moss- 
covered. 



(7) The Icy Polar Regions. 
The Arctic region. | The Antarctic region. 

Rainfall by Contrasts. 

High mountain ranges frequently separate moist from dry 
regions. The facts given below should be explained for 
each particular region. 



Moist. 
Annual Average. 


Range separating. 


Dry. 
Annual Average. 


89 inches in 
Astoria, Ore. 

41 inches. 

Centre Texas. 

82 inches, 

Norway. 

144 inches, 

Guinea. 
Very moist, 
Ascencion 
(74 inches). 


Rocky Mountains. 
Rocky Mountains. 
Scandinavian Mountains. 
Kong Mountains. 
Andes Mountains. 


5 inches, 
interior basin. 
8 inches. 
Centre New Mexico. 
20 inches, 
Sweden. 
33 inches, 

Kuka. 
Very dry, 
Atacama. 



Busy Work and Reviews. 

If the teacher will draw, in white crayon upon the black- 
board, several columns, as ruled below, and write the head- 
ings in red crayon, and the first column in yellow, leaving 



BUSY WORK 



159 



the other coUimns to be filled m by the pupils, he will 
furnish a very interesting exercise for geographical busy 
work. 

Lakes. 



Name. 


Where. 


Inlet. 


Outlet. 


Huron 

George 









Mountain Chains. 



Name. 


Where. 


Direction. 


Highest Peak. 


Sierra Nevada 









Mountain Peaks and Volcanoes. 



Name. 


Country 


Range. 


Remarks. 


Whitney, Mt. 
Everest, Mt. 
Cotopaxi, Vol. 









Sounds, Straits, and Channels. 



Name. 


Waters connected. 


Separates. 


Behring Strait 
English Channel 
Long Island Sound 
Etc. 











i6o 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 
Isthmuses. 



Name. 


What connected. 


Waters separated. 


Panarna 
Etc. 






Islands. 


Name. 


Situation. 


Surrounded by. 


Subject to. 


Falkland 
Etc. 








Rivers. 


Name. 


Source. 


Direction. 


Flows into. 


Nile 
Mississippi 








Capes, Promontories, and Peninsulas. 


Name. 


Where. 


Projects into. 


Farewell 

St. Roque 

tVorth 

Lower California 






Gulfs, Seas, and Bays. 


Name. 


Where. 


Connected with. 


Connected By. 


Baffin Bay 
Mexico Gulf 
Red Sea 









BUSY WORK 161 

The distance from Chicago to San Francisco is 2,340 
miles. Let the children use this distance on the map of 
the Old World as one would a pointer on the dial of a large 
clock. Perhaps they will be surprised to find where the 
2,340 mile circle is located. 

Ask the children to classify the following plants according 
to their uses for clothing, food, medicines, fuel, or luxuries : 
viz., cotton, cinchona, cloves, flax, mustard, maple, oak. 
poppy, pepper, pine, rice, tea, wheat. 

For a home lesson, ask the class to find out plants which 
grow in warm countries, in hot countries, in cold countries, 
in temperate countries. Then those which are usually found 
in dry, moist, or wet climates. 

Let the class draw meridians southward from Washington 
and Boston, also parallels eastward, and notice what coun- 
tries will be reached. 

Let the teacher at noon write on the board the following 
questions for extra credits : — 

Where is the Golden Gate ? Golden Horn ? Iron Gate ? 

The Red Sea? Yellow Sea? White Sea? Black Sea? 
Dead Sea? 

Is the Red Sea red ? the Black Sea black ? the Dead Sea 
dead? 

Find the Blue River; Yellow River; Black River (in one 
grand division). The Long River; Muddy River ; Beautiful 
River (in another grand division). 

What different kinds of workers are rendered necessary in 
order that a person may ride from Boston to New York ? 
(Engineers, conductors, firemen, brakemen, ticket-agents, 
machinists, miners, etc.) 



l62 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Sk etch-Maps. 

We do not refer now to the common outline map, but 
to any maps which are sketched in a quick and perhaps 
unfinished manner, for the purpose of illustrating some point 
in the reading lesson, some battle-field in the history, or the 
locality of some event just referred to in the morning paper. 
We have seen a class aroused from indifference to the keen- 
est interest by the teacher sketching, in half a minute, as 




^ ' Fig. 40. — Sketch-Map of 

Fig. 39. — Map of Flodden Field. Oceanica. 



rough a representation of the battle of Flodden Field as that 
given in Fig. 39. 

The little map of the battle-ground of Gettsyburg, given 
in Barnes's History, drawn upon the board on a larger 
scale, has helped many boys to remember that decisive 
event. 

We remember once seeing excellent sketch-maps of Africa 
drawn on the blackboard by the pupils of the Worcester 
Normal School, in one and a half, two, and two and a half 
minutes. All normal-school students should be trained to 
do such work in a quick, off-hand manner. 



SKETCH-MAPS, ETC. 1 63 

To illustrate still further our meaning, the attention is 
called to one form of a sketch-map of Oceanica. which any 
teacher can draw upon the board in three or four minutes. 

First, draw three horizontal lines representing the equator 
and tropics. In the upper left hand corner sketch the 
south-eastern part of Asia. (See Fig. 40.) Then, to save 
time, draw the large islands as rectangles, and add a few 
of the principal groups of islands, all of which are on or 
near the three horizontal lines. Following the German 
method, the class can name these islands as rapidly as they 
are drawn ; their names may be written on or near them, 
towns located, productions and exports printed, etc. 

The one chief object of the sketch-map is to aid the 
memory. 

Children of other Cliiues. 

A very interesting exercise for young children can be 
made by a talk upon the child Esquimau, Hottentot, or 
Indian. Let the children use their imaginations freely ; 
encourage them to ask and answer questions, using ideas 
already learned. The teacher should make ample use of 
pictures, specimens, and stories, to make the lesson as real 
as possible. It is not difficult to get illustrations for this 
purpose. 

Industries of the Mediterranean. 

Draw upon the board a large outline map of this sea. 
Have the children turn to the best map of the Mediterra- 
nean to be found in the text-book. Explain to them that a 
very small fish, called the tunny, in enormous numbers, 
enters this inland sea from the Atlantic Ocean through the 
Straits of Gibraltar ; in spring passes eastward through the 
entire length of the sea, makes the tour of the Black Sea, 



164 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



and returns in autumn to the Atlantic, making a journey of 
fifty-six hundred miles. Dolphins and other fish prey 
upon them, but man pursues them with the greatest 
destruction. 

In the bays of Sicily, Sardinia, Naples, and Provence, the 
little tunny is enticed into nets, and caught by the million. 
Where the tunny is caught, is indicated on the map by black 
lines. (See Fig. 41.) Sardines and anchovies are next in 
importance. 




Fig. 41. — Industries of the Mediterranean. 



Coral is found most abundantly in the western portion of 
the Mediterranean at great depths. The best places for 
finding it are indicated by a broken line. 

Sponges are found in the eastern part of the Mediterra- 
nean, at a depth of from twelve to one hundred and fifty 
feet, on the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor ; those of a 
poorer quality, in the Gulf of Cabes. They are gathered by 
clivers. 

The annual production of the fisheries in this sea is said 
to be ^,{^3, 000,000 ; the coral, ^^640,000 ; the sponges, 
^40,000. 



DISTANCES SAVED 



165 



Panama Canal. 

A very interesting general review exercise for upper classes 
can be made by writing on the board the names of the ports 
in the " Panama Canal " selection given below, and the 
distances given in the first and second column, and ask 
the class to find the distance saved as given in the third 
column. 



Consider briefly the importance of the canal for the commerce of 
the world in general. The following table shows, in round numbers, 
the distance in miles saved between various ports ; — 



Names of ports. 

London or Liverpool to San Francisco. 

Havre to San Francisco 

London to Sydney 

Havre to Sydney 

Bordeaux or Havre to Valparaiso 

London to Sandwich Islands 

New York to Valparaiso 

New York to Callao . 

New York to Guayaquil 

New York to San Diego 

New York to San Francisco 

New York to Vancouver . 



In many of the recitations in geography, a pupil or the 
teacher should be at the outline map or blackboard a large 
part of the time. There must be a constant appeal to the 
eye. The teacher who sits continually, generally has a slug' 
gish class, we have noticed. 



Distance by 


Dist. by Pan- 


Distance 


Cape Horn. 


ama Canal. 


saved. 


), 16,900 


8,200 


8,700 


. 16,100 


7,900 


8,200 


. 16,400 


10,900 


5.500 


. 16,100 


10,600 


5,500 


. 10,900 


7,450 


3.450 


. 14,900 


7,900 


7,000 


. 10,600 


3.900 


6,700 


. 11,200 


3,000 


8,200 


. 12,000 


2,400 


9,600 


. 1 5,400 


3.700 


11,700 


. 1 5,900 


4,200 


11,700 


. 16,600 


4,600 


12,000 


Ends. 







1 66 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Sometimes ask a bright pupil to represent the Mississippi 
River, or the eastern coast of South America, with a string 
on the desk. 

The drawing of all the States of this country, or learning 
their boundaries, is about as profitable a way of spending 
time as to learn the names of the mountains in the 
moon. 

Geography is one of the best studies for cultivating the 
Imagination. Teacher and pupils should take imaginary 
journeys about once a month. 

Make in the yard or on the roadside a rough elevation out 
of sand or earth, to represent the surface of the town or city 
or county ; also to represent the natural divisions. One or 
two children can help profitably in the work, if the teacher 
has the concept well matured in her mind. 

Explain to the children with a globe how a telegram dated 
Boston might be received in San Francisco at an earlier hour 
than it was sent. Also the advantage the New York and 
Boston papers have in receiving news over the London 
papers, as whatever is important in the London daiUes can 
be cabled here, and used in our dailies, without costing our 
papers much for collecting the news. 

Paint upon the floor in beginners' classes the cardinal 
points as determined before the children with the help of a 
compass. 

Representations of valleys, hills, mountains, lakes, rivers, 
capes, islands, etc., can be easily made upon a board with 
coarse sawdust, putty, dry sand, or moulders' sand. 

Friday night, ask the children to learn all they can from 
father, mother, older brothers or sisters, books or maps, 
about the hotne geography of the town or city or county. 



RAIN AND CURRENTS 



167 



The next Monday, call upon volunteers to recite what has 
been learned. 

Let the children find from the statistics of population the 
number of cities in the country containing fifty thousand or 
more people, and arrange them in order of size or locality. 

Ask the children to open to a map of the United States, 
and see if the State of California would reach from Boston 
to Charleston. 




RJV£« 

Fig. 42.— From Ocean to Ocean. 



Illustration in Physical Geography. 

When the teacher is giving a lesson on Rain, to young 
pupils, it will help them to remember what has been said, if 
a large oval be drawn on the board, and the important words 
used be placed at certain points around the oval, as shown 
in Fig. 42. 

Currents. 

The action of heat and cold in producing the oceanic 
currents can be very easily shown to a class with a glass tank 
three-fourths full of water, if a piece of ice is placed at one 
end, and the heat of a lamp applied below the tank at the 



i68 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Other end. (See Fig. 43.) If a little sawdust is placed in 
the water, the currents will soon be seen to move in the 
direction indicated by the arrows. A long tin dish or a 
glass sauce-dish will answer all the requirements. 




Fig. 43. — Currents Produced by Heat and Cold. 

Historical Geography. 

1. 1300 B. C. — The world consisted of the ^gean Sea and its 
border-lands (see Keith Johnston's Geography, p. 21). 

2. 300 B. C. — The world has grown bigger ; it now embraces the 
Mediterranean Sea and its border-lands (see Keith Johnston's Geog- 
raphy, p. 23). 

3. 800 A. D. — The Indian Ocean may now be added to the Medi- 
terranean Sea, and two centres are made, although discovery had not 
encircled the Indian Ocean (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 29). 

4. 1500 A. D. — Besides the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean 
with their borders, the eastern border of the Atlantic is well known 
(see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 38). 

5. 1700 A. D. — Now the known world is found about the Medi- 
terranean Sea, the Indian and Atlantic Oceans with their completed 
border-lands (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 56). 

6. 1888 A. D. — Now the Pacific Ocean and its border-lands are 
added to the above, and the known world embraces almost the entire 
surface of the globe (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 75. Draw six 
maps of these six worlds). 

It is interesting to remember, that in many respects the 
known world, No. i, called the ^gean Sea, was just as 



ELEVATIONS AND REVIEW CHARTS 



169 



large as No. 6, called the Pacific Ocean : i. e., it took 
as long to go from one side of it to the other side ; it 
was as dangerous and as difficult to cross. 

Representing EleTations. 

Elevations may be represented on the blackboard in 
different colors, or by using a variety of marks as in Fig. 44. 

A Review Chart 

can be readily made on paper with the rubber pen, or on 
the board, by copying some such set of topical words and 
phrases as the following : — 

North America. — i. Position. 2. Manitoba. 3. Charleston. 
4. Central Plain. 5. Sponges. 6. Mount Mitchell. 7. Upernavik. 
8. Indian. 9. Pineapples. 10. Japan Current. 11. The Grand 
Canon. 12. Musk-ox. 13. Grazing region. 14. White-fish. 15. 
New Orleans. 16. Prairies. 17. Pike's Peak. 18. Central Belt of 
climate. 19. Mining region. 20. Sugar. 21. City of Elms. 22. 
Exports of Boston. 23. Saratoga. 24. Scranton. 25. Cotton. 26. 
Great railroad centre. 27. Sandy Hook. 28. Seal. 29. Denver. 
30. Commerce. 31. Characteristics. 

Or the longest blackboard in the room, or all the black- 
boards, may be ruled in a dozen columns as below : — 









c 












. 


































































' > 


■> 




^ 


m 




u 




■ H 


c 


c 
.0 




60 

a 
_c 
■3 


Q 




"a 
u 
3 


6 


c 

S 

3 

X 


.0 

3 


E 


c 
c 

'e 




V 


e 





























&H 


Vi 





Oi 


'A 


u 


PL, 





PL, 


'A 





u 





























170 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 







Fig. 44.— A Simple Way to represent Elevations. 



THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 



171 



and some bright pupil be placed at the board to write words 
descriptive of what simple statement the first pupil gives in 
reference to position. Two or three pupils may be called 
in reference to surface. The beauty of this review exercise 
consists in its snap and rapidity. 

View of the Slissistiippi Valley. 

If a person in June were stationed in a fastened balloon 
over New Orleans, sufficiently high in the air, he would 




Fig. 45. — Sketch-Map of the Mississippi Valley. 



have a fine panoramic view of the United States. Directly 
LorLh would stretch out the beautiful Mississippi River and 
valley, to the great lakes in the distance. [Teacher sketches 
the same as he describes ; or, better, have a pupil sketch at 
blackboard, and class do the same at their seats.] On each 
side are many parallel streams constantly pouring their 
muddy waters into the main and central channel. 



172 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



To the left of this great valley or plain, rise the sharp 
peaks of the Rocky Mountains, white with snow, like a silver 
frame to an oil landscape-painting; to the right are the 
Appalachian Mountains, rounded and black with forests, 
near by compact in three parallel ranges, then breaking up 
into separate groups such as the Adirondacks, Green, and 
White Mountains. When finished, the sketch will have the 
appearance indicated in Fig. 45. 






»s ^ -, 



, A J 


_______n____ 


-— ^--4 


._ L_J_ 


t \± 






^-^ T T^ 



Fig. 46. —From Last Census Report. 
Showing the number of inhabitants in the United States who live in wet or dry climates. 

Papers and News. 

Bring into the class a number of daily papers, same issue, 
in which the telegrams of importance have been marked, 
and pass them out among the pupils in the geography-class, 
asking them to look up the locahty and importance of the 
places mentioned. A lively exercise will surely follow. 

Appoint a committee from the class to report all impor- 
tant news items each Friday ; the class to locate on an 
outline-map the places mentioned. 



RULERS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 1 73 

The Present Rnlers of Several Important Countries. 

[Alake a review exercise from the listi\ 

1892. 

COUNTRY. RULER. 

Argentine Republic President Celman. 

Austria-Hungary Emperor Franz Josef I. 

Belgium King Leopold II. 

Brazil General Peixoto. 

Chili President Montt. 

China Emperor Kwang Su. 

Denmark King Christian IX. 

France President Carnot. 

Germany Emperor William II. 

Great Britain Queen Victoria. 

British India Viceroy Lord Lansdowne. 

Canada Gov.-Gen. Lord Stanley. 

Italy King Humbert I. 

Japan Mikado Mutsu Hito. 

Mexico President Diaz. 

Netherlands Queen Maria. 

Portugal King Charles I. 

Rome Pope Leo XIII. 

Russia Emperor Alexander III. 

Spain King Alfonso XIII. (child). 

Sweden and Norway .... King Oscar II. 

Switzerland President Hauser. 

Turkey Sultan Abdul Hamid II. 

United States President Cleveland. 

Charts from Census Reports. 

The census report of the United States for 1880 contain;-, 
many interesting tables in reference to the industries, popu- 
lation, and habits of the people. 

To illustrate, we reproduce two tables in reference to the 
population. In Fig. 46 is shown how the population is 



^74 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



distributed in reference to the annual average rainfall. The 
figures at the top give the amount in inches ; those at the 
left, the millions of inhabitants. It will be seen at once that 
eight million people live where the downpour reaches about 
forty inches on the average for the year. Fig. 47 shows, in 
a similar way, that much the larger part of the people prefer 
to live where the average temperature ranges from forty 
five to fifty degrees above zero. 



^ ? ? 

S i2 5 




' 






; 
















/ 


\ 




















/ 


\ 






















\ 






















\ 






















\ 






















\ 
















1 






\ 






















\ 














/ 










\ 












/ 










s 


s 










/ 












\, 








^ 


/ 














., 







"^ 

















Fig. 47.— From Last Census Report. 
Showing the number of inhabitants who live in warm or cold temperatures. 



The Geographical Scrap-Book. 

To paste selections in a blank-book, takes considerable 
time, and prevents using them afterwards individually. It 
is much better to purchase a standard letter-file (fifty cents), 
and place the scraps in the pockets alphabetically. With 
the help of the class a rich collection of material soon 
accumulates, and no teacher is so poor that he cannot soon 
own a valuable geographical encyclopaedia. To show what 
is meant, a few selections are given below, taken from our 
own pocket scrap-book : — ■ 



FROM THE SCRAP-BOOK I 75 

" In Corea the women are kept in the greatest seclusion. Every 
evening, however, at a certain hour, the city gates of the towns are 
closed at a given signal, upon which all men are bound to leave the 
streets, which are given up to the women for promenading and recrea- 
tion. It is deemed a great offence against modesty to look at a 
woman then in the public streets." 

" In the Tyrol they have a pretty custom of taking special notice 
of grandma's birthday. Young people, of course, e.xpect many happy 
returns of their natal day ; but the old can have only a few more at the 
best, so the object is to make these few just as sunshiny as possible. 
In the morning, the Tyrolese children gather in groups under grandma's 
window, and awaken her with music from flutes and violins. The 
house is decorated with garlands, and all day long the old lady sits in 
state in a high chair to receive the simple gifts which are brought 
her. On each one is pinned some little message of love. A large 
cake, from which grandma cuts a slice for each new-comer, forms a 
part of the ceremony." 

"London is vast, but Paris is splendid. London is a city of 
roads ; Paris, a city of streets. London is a growth ; Paris is a crea- 
tion. London is a workingman in his overalls and hob-nailed shoes; 
Paris is a lady of fashion in silk and jewels. The face of London is 
an earnest face, with a soul behind it, — a face full of character, inten- 
tion, resolution. The face of Paris wears the smile of one who drives 
dull care away; there are wrinkles on it, but they are dexterously 
disguised with cosmetic arts. The face of London is seamed and 
scarred, and is not ashamed. London, like its name, is full of a deep 
reverberation ; Paris, like its name, is a flash. Paris is a bunch of 
summer flowers, with short stems, that must fade and perish to-morrow ; 
London is a basket of autumn-fruits that hold within matter for 
future ripening and usefulness." 

" The sugar-cane belongs to the family of grasses, and, when 
growing, looks not unlike our Indian corn. It is raised from cuttings 
fifteen or twenty mches long, taken from the top of the plant just 
below the leaves. The remaining part is then cut off near the root. 
From the root spring a number of shoots called ratoons. These, 



176 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

with the cuttings, furnish the plants for the next year's crop. The part 
between the cuttings and the root is filled with a pith that contains 
the juice from which sugar is made. The sugar-cane is now culti- 
vated in almost all warm climates ; but in Java:, Mauritius, and Cuba, 
the manufacture of sugar reaches its highest degree of perfection, 
owing, perhaps, to the great extent of the cane-plantations." 

" Henry C. Rowe, of Connecticut, has eighteen thousand acres 
planted to oysters, from which he reaps over a million bushels of 
oysters in a year. The work is thus carried on by him : — 

"The oyster-farmer, having secured his ground, next cuts it up 
into smaller lots, in order to till it systematically. This is done, of 
course, by buoys in deep water, and by stakes in shallow. Oysters 
cast their spawn, at various times between March and November, but 
mostly in July and August. Each female contains from ten to sixty 
million eggs. Few of them, proportionally, mature. The young 
oysters are for a few days free floaters, and then they are ready to be 
attached to any clean substance that may offer. The plan has been 
tried in the vicinity of Groton, in the Pequonnock River, of thrusting 
down small trees, — white birch being preferred, — letting them lean 
at an angle of forty-five degrees, sloping with the current. The young 
oysters set on these very readily. They are harvested when mature 
by the simple process of pulling up the bushes, and stripping off their 
singular fruit. As many as one thousand bushels of superior oysters 
have been gathered from an acre in a single season ! Oysters will 
set on almost any object that they come in contact with. Clean 
gravel is preferable to any thing else, where it can be had. Old, dry 
shells are generally used for the purpose." 

" In countries where earthquakes are common, it is said that ani- 
mals give warning of the coming danger. Some minutes before the 
shock is felt, oxen and cows begin to bellow, sheep and goats bleat 
loudly, and dogs howl. Horses in the stalls leap up and down, try- 
ing to break their halters, while those on the road stop suddenly, and 
snort in a strange way. Rabbits and moles have been seen to leave 
their holes, and fishes approach the shore. When the great earth- 
quake occurred in the island of Ischia, a few years ago, some people 
who were asleep were enabled to save their lives by being pulled by 
their dogs, who barked wildly just before the shock took place." 



FROM THE SCRAP-BOOK I 77 

"Bamboo. — Perhaps nothing in the vegetable kingdom is put to 
such a variety of uses as bamboo. It is said that the Chinese use it 
in over five hundred different ways, and with them it takes the place 
of both iron and steel. The farmer builds his houses and fences with 
it, his furniture is made from it, while the tender shoots furnish a 
delicious food for his table. The roots are carved into images; the 
tapering stalks are used for ribs of sails, for every sort of frames, 
coops, and cages, for handles and ribs of umbrellas and fans ; while 
the leaves are sewed into rain-cloaks and thatches. The shavings 
are good for stuffing pillows. Chop-sticks for eating, the pipe for 
smoking, the broom for sweeping, the mattress to lie upon, the book 
to study from, the skewer to pin the hair, the hat to screen the head, 
the paper to write on, and the pencil to write with, are a few of the 
ways in which a Chinaman uses bamboo. With five dollars, he can 
build quite a decent hut." 

" Chinese Opposites. — The Chinese mariner's compass points 
south ; i.e., the index is placed on the opposite end of the needle. 
The Chinese shake their own hands when they meet. The men wear 
skirts, and the women pants. The men wear their hair as long as it 
will grow , the women bind theirs up as snug as possible. The dress- 
makers are men, not women. The spoken language is never written, 
and the written language is never spoken. In reading a book the 
Chinaman begins at the end, and reads backwards. All notes in 
the book appear at the top of the page in place of the bottom, as 
with us. White is the mourning color, not black. Surnames precede 
the given names. Vessels are launched sideways, not endways. In 
mounting a horse, the Chinese do so from the off side. At dinner we 
commence the meal with soup and fish : they reverse the order, and 
begin with the dessert. Grown-up men fly kites, and the boys look 
on. Our bridesmaids are young, and dress in white ; theirs are old 
women clad in black." — Due West, by Ballou. 

Fancy Names. 

Ask the children to learn all the nicknames for cities they 
can find ; such as Spindle City, Quaker City, Crescent City, 
City of Churches, City of Elms, etc. 



178 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Sobriquets of States. 
Make an exercise from the following facts : — 



STATES. 

Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont . 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware . 

Virginia . 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio . 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Iowa . 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Colorado 

Nevada 

California 



SOBRIQUETS. 

Pine-tree State. 

Granite State. 

Green-mountain State. 

Old Bay State. 

Little Rhody. 

Nutmeg State. 

Empire State. 

Jersey Blue. 

Keystone State. 

The Diamond State. 

Old Dominion. 

Pan-handle State. 

Tar State. 

Palmetto State. 

Empire State of the South. 

Peninsula State. 

The Bayou State. 

Creole State. 

The Lone Star State. 

Bear State. 

Big Bend State. 

Corn Cracker State. 

Buckeye State. 

Hoosier State. 

Prairie or Sucker State. 

Wolverine or Lake State. 

Badger State. 

Hawkeye State. 

Gopher State. 

Garden of the West. 

Centennial State. 

Sage Hen State. 

The Golden State. 



SOBRIQUETS OF CITIES 



179 



Sebriquet8 of Cities. 



CITIES. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Brussels 

Brooklyn 

Buffalo 

Chicago 

Cincinnati 

Detroit 

Indianapoli 

Leipsic 

Lowell 

Nashville 

New Haven 

New Orleans 

New York . 

Pittsburg . 

Portland, Me. 

Rome 

San Francisco 

St. Louis . 

Venice 

Washington 



SOBRIQUETS. 

Monumental City. 

Hub of the Universe. 

Little Paris. 

City of Churches. 

Queen City of the Lakes. 

Garden City. 

Queen City. 

City of the Straits. 

Railroad City. 

Town of the Lime-Trees. 

City of Spindles. 

City of Rocks. 

City of Elms. 

Crescent City. 

Empire City. 

Smoky City. 

Forest City. 

Eternal City. 

Frisco. 

Mound City. 

Queen City of the World. 

City of Magnificent Distances. 




Fig. 48. —Important Coal Fields of the United States. 



i8o 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 49.— Map of Mauch Chuiik. 





Fig. 



ILLUSTRATED COMPOSITIONS 



i8i 



Geographical Compositions. 

As soon as the class begin to be interested in geography, 
they are ready to express their new ideas in writing. The 
best of compositions can be written upon some interesting 
town, hke Washington or Rome ; or upon some discoverer, 
hke Stanley or Greely. The common productions, such 




Fig. 52.— Pen-Picture of Mauch Chunk. 

as cotton, wheat, petroleum, gold, or coal, form capital sub- 
jects for compositions. Children are all the more interested 
if encouraged to illustrate their compositions with pen-and- 
ink sketches, and make it seem like a book. The writer 
has in his possession a set of such illustrated compositions 
prepared by a recent class in his room, on the subject of 
coal. A few of the pen-and-ink pictures are reproduced 
in Figs. 48-54. 




Fig. 53.— Another Title-Page. 
(Drawn with pen by Master L. A. Frink, Graduating Class, Lewis School, Boston.) 



FUN IN GEOGRAPHY 183 

Such topics as the following are profitable for composi- 
tions : — 

Fisheries in Massachusetts. Cotton in Mississippi. Rice 
in South Carolina. Salt in New York. Oysters in Mary- 
land. Silver in Nevada. Coal in Pennsylvania. Railroads 
in New England ; in the West. The Indians ; The Esqui- 
maux; The Negroes. New-England Weather. Western 
Farming. A Letter from California to a Cousin in Maine. 
A Trip to Alaska. Mining. How Shoes are made. The 
Life of a Linen Collar. The Seal; Grizzly Bear; Deer. 
Salmon- Fishing. 

A Funny Lesson in Geography. 

Children enjoy a bit of fun now and then. They will 
appreciate the reading of the following from the '' Railway 
Journal : " — 

" Dear teacher, will you tell me what the inhabitants of 
America are called .'' " 

" They are called Americans, my boy." 

"And are the people of Mexico called Mexicones ?" 

" No, my boy ; they are called Mexicans." 

" Ah ! and the people of Greece, for instance, are called 
Greecycans ? " 

" No, my boy ; they are called Greeks." 

" Then, teacher, are the people of Spain called Speaks?" 

" No, dear boy ; they are called Spaniards." 

" Indeed ! and the people of Portugal, are they Portugards ?" 

" No, my boy; they are called Portuguese." 

" Ah ! then the people of Germany are Germangeese ? 

" No, my boy ; they are Germans." 

" Oh! and the people of Norway, are they Normans ? " 

" No, my boy ; they are Norwegians." 



184 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

" And the people of Sweden, are they Skowhegans ? " 
" No, dear boy ; they are Swedes." 
" And are the people of Sardinia Sardines ? " 
" No, my boy ; they are Sardinians." 
" And in Japan are they Japanians .'' " 
" No, my boy ; they are Japanese." 
" And in Morocco, are they Moroccoese ? " 
" No, my boy ; they are Moors." 
" And are the people of Patagonia Pats ? " 
" No, my boy ; they are Patagonians." 
" And in Hindoostan, are they called Hindoostanians ? " 
" No, my boy ; they are Hindoos." 
"And in Holland, are they HoUoos ? " 
"No, my boy; they are Dutch." 
" And in Belgium they are Belch ? " i 

" No, dear boy ; they are Belgians." 
" And in Poland are they Polians ? " 
" No, dear boy; they are Poles." 
" Oh, yes ! and in Russia they are Rushes ? " 
" No, no ; they are Russians." 
" And in Wales, they are Wallians ? " 
" No, indeed ; they are Welch." 
" And in Scotland, they are Sculch .'' " 
" Not at all ; they are Scotch." 
" And in Ireland, they are Itch ? " 
" No ; they are Irish." 
" And in France, they are Fish ? " 
"No; French." 

" Oh ! and in England, they are Inch ? ' 
"No; they are English." 

" And are the people of Switzerland called Switch ? " 
" No ; they are Swiss." 

" Oh, yes ! and the people of Sicily are Siss — or are they 
Sissys ? " 



DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 185 

" They are Sicilians." 

" And in Turkey, are they Turkeyans or Turkeys ? " 
" Neither ; they are Turks." 
" Oh ! and in Italy, they are Its .? " 
"No; they are Italians." 

" And the people of Denmark, dear teacher — } " 
" My boy, the people of Denmark may go to — Copenhagen. 
I think we have had all the geography we need for one day." 



Geography and Devotional Exercises. 

If the teacher make his selections from the Bible, remem- 
bering the child nature, his class will be deeply interested ; 
e.g., if Africa is the country they are studying, then begin 
to read selections in the last part of Genesis and in Exodus 
about Joseph and Moses. The plagues of Egypt, Exod. 
vii.-xii., are usually enjoyed by the class. If Asia is the 
grand division, then selections from the first part of Genesis 
should be made, about Noah and the ark, Abraham and the 
three angels, Sodom and Lot, Abraham and Isaac, Isaac's 
courtship, Esau and Jacob, Jacob serving for Rachel, Jacob 
meeting Esau. Joshua's adventures as related in the first 
part of Joshua are always interesting. Samson, Daniel, and 
Samuel are also great favorites. The girls generally enjoy 
such characters as Ruth and Esther. 

If a map of the world hang behind the desk, the teacher 
can easily add a word of geographical explanation which 
will create much interest in the subject. We recently saw 
a class of rough boys listening with the most intense eager- 
ness for ten minutes as the teacher read, making about ten 
words of geographical comment, the story of Jacob obtain- 
ing the blessing (Gen. xxvii.). 




LOAD IInTG- COAL. STJND FRLAND Et7&. 




Fig. 54. —Full-Page Illustration from FriiLk^s Composition on Coal. 




Fig. 55.— Belts oi 




■ts and Deserts. 




UPHEAVALS DCFHtSSroNS. 

Fig. 56.— The Upheavals and Depres 




m Different Parts of the World. 



CONTRASTED BELTS 187 

Forests and Deserts. 

A large part of the surface of the earth is covered by one 
of these contrasted belts, depending upon the amount of 
moisture. By glancing at Fig. 55, it will be seen at once 
that the belts of desert plains are on or near the tropics ; 
while the forest belts are mostly on or near the equator and 
sixty degrees north parallel. 

If the teacher is provided with an oil-painted outline 
map of the world on Mercator's projection, he can readily 
reproduce Fig. 55 before the class in contrasted colors. 

Upheavals and Depressions. 

A " bit of geology " always pleases an intelligent class. 
Many simple facts and good illustrations will be found in 
such books as Shaler's First Book m Geology, and Dana's 
Geological Story Biiefly Told. In Fig. 56, the upheavals and 
depressions so quietly going on about the coast of the Atlan- 
tic Ocean, and on the western side of South America, are 
plainly indicated. If these are shown on the blackboard 
with colored crayon, and briefly explained by the teacher, 
the class will be intensely interested, and led to study the 
matter more fully. (For facts, consult the above books and 
Reclus' Earth?) 



CHAPTER X 

MODEL LESSONS 



The teacher's part, then, in the process of instruction, is that of 
a guide, director, or superintendent of the operation by which the 
pupil teaches himself. — Payne. 

1S9 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Frye's Geography, with Sand Modelling. 

Geikie's Teaching of Geography. 

Goodison's Articles in Popular Educator, 1887 and 1888. 

Patridge's Quincy Methods. 

Peavey's Manual of Geography. 

Prince's Methods in German Schools. 

Note. — Teachers who wish to study model lessons for lower classes will 
do well to consult the books mentioned above. 



CHAPTER X 

MODEL LESSONS 
PART I — SURFACE OF NORTH AMERICA 

OBJECT OF THE RECITATION — PREPARATION MADE BY PUPIL — PREPARATION MADE 
BY TEACHER — APPARATUS USED — REVIEW — ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLANDS — 
ADVANCED LESSON — PLATEAUS — VALLEYS — DIFFERENT MOUNTAINS — VISITING 
MOUNTAINS — SLOPES 

PART II — CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA. 

OBJECT OF RECITATION, ETC. — BELTS OF CLIMATE — CAUSES AFFECTING THE 
CLIMATE — FACTS ABOUT THE ARCTIC CLIMATE — CENTRAL BELT — COMPARISONS 

— FACTS ABOUT THE TEMPERATE CLIMATE — SHORT DESCRIPTIONS 

PART I 
RECITATION IN GEOGRAPHY, IN A FIFTH- YEAR CLASS 

Subject — Surface of North America 

Object of the Kecitation. — i. A review of previous lesson. 2. To 
ascertain how much preparation had been made by the class on the 
advanced part of the lesson. — Plains and Eastern highlands, which liad 
been assigned as a home lesson. 3. To show, by comparison with what 
was taught on p. 263, that the recitation is not confined to just what was 
taught, but it may be somewhat elastic. 

Preparation made by Pupils. — Study of notes made at end of previous 
lesson, when many facts, not in the text-books, were given by teacher. 
Examination of twenty pictures shown by solar camera, and a few photo- 
graphs, and several pictures in the ordinary geographies. Reading 
numerous books from library in preparation for reading hour. 

191 



192 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Preparation on the Part of the Teacher. — Studying raised map, 
Guyot's maps, stereoscope and lantern pictures of the region. The 
making of a sand map the night before. Examination of sucli illus- 
trated books as "North America" by Manning, " Rocky Mountains" by 
Miss Bird, "Yosemite" by Kneeland, " United States Geological Sur- 
vey" by Hayden ; reading "On Horseback" in "Atlantic Monthly," 
" Rocky Mountains " by Bird, " The Round Trip " by Codman, " From 
Fifth Avenue to Alaska " by Ed. Pierrepont, " Across the Continent " 
by Bowles. Consulting several times " Mission of the North-American 
People " by Gilpin, " Glimpses of the Earth " by Blakiston, Appleton's 
Cyclopaedia, Lippincott's Gazetteer, maps, etc. 

Apparatus Used. — Globe, blackboard, outline map on cloth blackboard, 
raised atlas, sand map, putty map, charts, Guyot's large wall Physical 
Map of North America, Hughes's Political Map of same, Warren's 
Political and Guyot's Physical Maps in geographies. 

THE RECITATION 

(Written from a report made by a pupil. New matter brought out is 
printed in Italics.) 

I — REVIEW 

Surface in General, and Rocky Mountain Highlands. 

Teacher. Miss Foss may point out on the globe the general 
trend of North America. (She examines, and reports "north 
and south.") 

T. How does North America compare in size with the 
other grand divisions ? Hands. (There are forty hands raised, 
and Master Brooks is selected to answer. He comes forward 
to the desk, takes up a pasteboard outline of North America, 
goes to the comparative chart on which all the grand divisions 
are drawn upon the same scale, and places his outline of North 
America over several of the other grand divisions so as to 
answer the question.) 

T, Tell the class from the sand map what you learned 
yesterday about the surface of North America, Miss Hope. 

Miss H. The surface of North America is easily divided 
into two highlands and two plains. Here are represented the 



SEA ALPS 



193 



Western Highlands (pointing); here, the Central Plain. The 
Western Cordilleras are subdivided into the Cascade Range 
at the north, the: largest range, and the Sierra Nevada in 
California, and the Sierra Madre in Mexico. The plateau is — ■ 

T. That will do. Very good. Well, Miss Forbes? 

Miss Forbes. I think she made a mistake. 

T. What was it ? 

Miss F. She omitted to say that the Eastern Cordilleras is 
usually called the Rocky Mountains, and differing from the 
Western Cordilleras in being higher, and having only one name 
for its entire length. 

T. Very good. What appropriate name is sometimes given 
lO the Cascade Range north of Vancouver Island? 

(After a pause only one hand is raised.) 

T. What is it, Master Pinkham ? 

P. The Sea Alps. 

T. Well done, Pinkham. Where did yon learn that? 

P. From a book I ajn reading. 

T. Class, please notice the advantage of reading good 
books. Will the next please describe the surface of North 
America, from Guyot's Physical Map ? 

(Master Ryan takes the pointer, and repeats what had been 
given before, only he used the physical map instead of the sand 
map.) 

T. Master Riley, please read from this book, called the 
''Essentials of Geography,''' by Fisher, a different name for 
what Master Ryan called the Cordilleras. 

Master Riley reads : In the ive stern part of North A merica 
are an imier and an outer mountain system, walling in a vast 
plateau. 

T. Which name do you like better ? 

R. Cordilleras. 

T. Why ? 

R. Because it is shorter. 



194 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. How many prefer Cordilleras ? 

{The class is divided in opitiion.) 

T. What does the word Cordilleras mean ? 

{No one knew except Miss Hicks, who is a good thinker. She 
thought it tneant mountain, because it was applied to a range 
of mountains. The teacher then writes the word on the board, 
using yellow for the first foztr letters, and white for the others^ 
This is a Spanish word, and meaning — Class ? {and the 
teacher points to the first four letters, — Cord.) 

T. Or? Hands. Miss Hicks. 

Miss H. A cord, or chain, or string. 

T. Do we ever use any of those English words for a moun- 
tain ? Class. 

CI. Yes : chain. 

T. So you see the Spanish word means the same as the 
English word. Mr. Fisher'' s term is excellent. You can use 
either. 

(This short diversion increased the manifested interest in the 
class. The eyes began to brighten, and the hands to be raised 
with greater eagerness to indicate a desire to recite.) 

T. Who will describe the Rocky-Mountain Plateau from 
the sand map ? 

(About thirty hands are raised. Miss Forbes is selected. 
She quickly steps to the sand-map, and takes the pointer.) 

Miss F. The Rocky-Mountain Plateau lies between the 
Eastern and Western Cordilleras. A person in travelling over 
it from north to south would pass various sections of moun- 
tains, would go up and down constantly ; but he would gradually 
rise higher and higher above the level of the sea. 

The distance from north to south is five thousand miles. 
This plateau is divided into seven great basins. The most 
northern one is called the Yukon Basin. The land here [point- 
ing to it] averages about one thousand feet above the level of 
the sea. The next is the basin of the Frazer River ; and very 



ROCKY-MOUNTAIN PLATEAU 1 95 

near this is the much larger Columbia Basin, where the land 
averages four thousand feet above sea-level. All these basins 
drain into the Pacilic Ocean. The widest and largest of these 
basins is the next one, called the Interior Basin. The rivers 
here drain toward the Great Salt Lake, and not into any ocean. 
This is about six thousand feet high. South of this is the 
Colorado Basin, containing the Colorado River, the Colorado 
Canon, pictures of which we saw yesterday. This slopes 
toward the Gulf of California. Then comes, east and south of 
the last-named basin, the basin of the Rio Grande, draining into 
the Gulf of Mexico. The last and most southern of these 
basins is that of Mexico. It is also the smallest and highest, 
being about eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. It 
is, like Utah, an interior basin. 

T. Very good. Now, who will represent all that Miss 
Forbes has told us so well, upon this cloth blackboard outline ? 
Miss Maloney. 

(Miss M. steps to the board ; and in a few moments with 
colored crayon she has drawn the Cordilleras, marked off and 
numbered the basins, and indicated their elevations.) 

T. Any criticisms ? Master Riley. 

R. She didn't indicate the basin of the MacKenzie. 

T. Miss Maloney, did I ask you to indicate that? 

Miss M. No, sir. 

T. Why not ? 

Miss M. Because it is not on the Rocky-Mountain Plateau. 

(Still Master Riley has his hand up, and also some other 
pupils.) 

T. Master Riley, have you any other criticisms ? 

R. Yes, sir. She has placed the basin of Mexico too far 
north. 

(Miss M. corrects this mistake to the satisfaction of the now 
wide-awake class.) 



196 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Rocky-Mountain Highlands. 

Teacher. Miss Forbes spoke, in her well-given description of 
the Rocky-Mountain Plateau, in reference to certain pictures 
of the Colorado Canon. Tell us about them. (A large number 
of hands is raised, and Master Vincent is given the floor.) 

V. You showed us the other day, with the solar camera, 
four pictures of the canon. One was called the Marble Canon. 
In this picture the walls of rock rise very steep on each side to 
the height of four thousand feet, and seem to be composed of 
different layers of stone, which you said were of various colors. 
In the foreground we saw a very large Spanish bayonet and 
different varieties of cactus. 

The finest picture of the four is called the Grand Canon, 
looking east. Here the river runs a long distance in almost a 
straight line ; and so great are the distances, that the river looks 
like a silver thread at the bottom of the canon. Here the walls 
rise almost perpendicularly seven thousand feet. Many side 
canons are noticeable, and places looking like alcoves. 

T. What places among the Rocky Mountains are celebrated 
for scenery ? Master Hatch. 

H. The Colorado Canon, Yosemite Valley and Big Trees, 
and the National Park. 

71 Where is the Yosemite Valley ? Point it out. 

(Master Hatch steps to the cloth blackboard outline, and indi- 
cates the position east of San Francisco, in the Sierra Nevada 
range.) 

T. What would you see in this valley, if you visited it? 

H. I should see a long, narrow valley, through which a river 
flows : the sides are very steep, rising in some places perpen- 
dicularly to the height of three thousand feet. There are 
several waterfalls, the largest and most beautiful being the 
Yosemite Falls. 

T. Have you seen pictures of these falls ? 



GROVES AND GEYSERS I97 

H. Yes, sir. There is a photograph of these falls hanging 
on the wall of the room, near my seat. 

T. Tell us about the big trees. Miss Dary. 

Miss D. There are two groves of these trees, called the 
Calaveras Grove and the Mariposa Grove. They are both 
situated in the Sierra Nevada range, not far from the Yosemite 
Valley. One grove has over a thousand trees in it. Some of 
the largest are thirty feet in diameter and over three hundred 
and fifty feet high. The bark is over a foot in thickness. 
Bunker-Hill Monument could be placed inside such a tree, and 
it would reach only two-thirds of the way to the top. 

T. What pictures give you the best idea of the size of these 
trees .-' 

Miss D. The one representing a coach driving through the 
trunk of the tree. 

T. What would you see if you travelled in the National 
Park? 

H. Geysers and hot springs. 

T. How do you know you would? You have never trav- 
elled there, have you ? 

H. No ; but I saw the pictures you showed of the park, 
and in them were many pictures of geysers and hot springs. 
One geyser was called " Old Faithful." 

T. That will do. What other pictures have you seen ? 
Hands. 

(Hands are shown from nearly every part of the class. Miss 
Adams is requested to reply.) 

Miss A. I saw a picture of Pike's Peak and Long's Peak. 

T. What did I tell you about them ? 

Miss A. You said Major Pike, after whom the peak was 
named, tried to climb it in 1803, but failed. He said, '• Nothing 
but a bird could reach its summit." Now ladies, and even 
children, ride on horseback to the top. The United-States 
Signal Bureau has a station there, and men stay on the mountain 
all the year round. 



198 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. Did I say any thing about Long's Peak ? 

(Miss Adams hesitates, and hands are raised with great 
eagerness by nearly every pupil.) 

T. Well, Master Langdon. 

L. You read to us about Miss Bird ascfcnding the mountain 
with " Mountain Jim." 

T. Did / read it ? 

L. No, sir. Miss Foss read it from your book. 

T. In these pictures, do you remember how the trees ap- 
peared, Miss Foss ? 

Miss Foss. They seemed to stand alone in clumps, instead 
of close together as in Massachusetts. 

T. How high are the peaks in the Rocky Mountains ? 
Master Peters. 

P. The two highest peaks are the volcanoes Mount St. Elias 
in Alaska, and Popocatapetl in Mexico, both of which are about 
eighteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. Pike's Peak 
and Long's Peak are about fourteen thousand feet. 

T. The children of Mexico always call the mountain 
" Popo." 

From the chart of comparative heights, show how high 
eighteen thousand feet is. 

{Peters places before the class the above chart., and shows that 
Mount St. Elias is three times as high as Mount lVashi7igton, 
which has been seen by several pupils., and eighteen times as 
high as any kills near the school.) 

T. What is peculiar about the highest peaks ? 

Class. They stand at the extreme ends of the Rocky 
Mountain chain. 

T. Are there glaciers in the Rocky Mountain chain ? 

Class. Yes. 

T. Where ? 

Class. In Alaska. 

T. Well, Master Golden. 



HIGHLANDS AND PLAINS I99 

G. I read the other day in the supplentcnt to the Boston 
" Traveller^'' that on Mount Tacomas, Washington Territory, a 
large glacier has just been discovered, equal in size and beauty 
to those seen in Switzerland. 

T. Very good, Golden. I saw that account the other day, 
and was about to mention it. 

Railroads and steamers now connect this mountain with 
Portland attd all the country, so we need no longer cross the 
Atlantic in order to enjoy the view of a river of ice. Master 
Vincent must enclose that glacier in his putty map. 

II— ADVANCED LESSON 

T. We have lingered too long, I see, on this part of the 
lesson, and must proceed immediately to the home lesson, the 
Atlantic Highlands and the Plains of A^orth America. 

Miss Porter, please step to the board, and indicate by two lines 
the general direction of the two highlands. (Miss Porter has 
not thought of that, but bravely goes to the indicated board, 
takes the crayon, and, after thinking a few moments, draws two 
lines in the right direction.) 

T. Those who approve, raise their hands. (The class are 
satisfied.) 

How do the mountains of North America compare with 
those of South America, Miss Doyle? 

D. They run in the same direction, but those in South 
America are higher. 

T. With those in Europe, Corcoran ? 

C. The mountains in Europe run mostly from west to east. 

T. What name does Guyot give to these Atlantic high- 
lands ? Class. 

C. Appalachian. 

T. Describe their position. Master Wood. 

IV. Near the Atlantic and — 

T. Miss McClellan. 



200 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

M. The Appalachian Highlands are situated between the 
Central Plain and the Atlantic Plain, and run parallel to the 
Atlantic coast. 

T. Are they similar in all parts ? Class. 

C. No. 

T. What is peculiar about the southern half, Miss Guierrier? 

G. There are several parallel ranges in this part. 

T. What different arrangement did you notice in reference 
to the northern half.'' 

G. The mountains seem to be in groups. 

T. Yes, or detached^ you might say. How many noticed, 
in studying this subject last night, that there are noted valleys 
between these i>arallel ranges in the southern part.'' (Only a 
few hands are raised, showing that the question went beyond 
the observation of most in the class.)' 

You may open your geographies, p. 37, and see how many 
valleys you can discover. 

(The class do so, and soon hands are raised by pupils eager 
to tell what they have discovered.) 

T. Master Batcheldor ? 

B. There is a valley between the Cumberland and Alleghany 
Mountains, in which the Holston River flows. 

T. That you can call the Valley of East Tennessee. 

B. Farther north there is a valley between the Alleghany 
and the Blue Ridge, through which the Shenandoah River flows. 
^ T. Yes ; and you can call it what ? 

B. Valley of the Shenandoah ? 

T. I asked j/czif a question. Please answer it. 

B. Valley of the Shenandoah. 

T. The land between the Alleghany and Blue Ridge is some- 
times called the " Great Valley.'''' Do you find any more ? 

B. The Hudson Valley in New York. 

T. Has any one found another ? Master Corcoran. 

C. The Mohawk Valley. 



VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS 201 

T. Yes, that would do, perhaps; but notice, it runs at right 
angles to the other valleys, and it is much smaller. It is men- 
tioned more frequently in what study ? 

C. In history. 

T. What persons were often seen there then ? 

C. Indians. 

T. What modern highway passes through it ? (Master Cor- 
coran does not read the papers, and so has not heard. But 
several boys are so anxious to tell, they leave their seats, 
and come with uplifted hands towards the teacher, who is stand- 
ing in one corner of the room. He selects Master Vincent, the 
smallest, to reply.) 

V. A^ew York Central Railroad. 

(This does not satisfy some of the others, who prefer the Erie 
Canal, and the teacher is obliged to tell them that both answers 
are correct.) 

T. There is another noted valley in Pennsylvania. Who 
will find it? (Several are mentioned, such as the Susquehanna 
and Juniata Valleys ; but these do not satisfy, and the teacher 
adds the Cumberland Valley) 

Begin at the southern part of the highlands, and name in order 
the different ranges and groups of mountains. Miss Wallis, you 
may locate them at the same time on this outline map. (Miss 
Wallis points out and locates as follows : ) 

Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee, Alleghany in Virginia, 
Blue Ridge in Virginia and Pennsylvania, Catskill and Adiron- 
dack in New York, Hoosac in Massachusetts, Green in Vermont, 
White in New Hampshire, and — (A score of hands are raised, 
and half a dozen crowd about the desk, eager for the opportunity 
to supplement deficiencies in Miss Wallis's recitation. The 
teacher chooses Master O'Brion.) 

Master O. She omitted the mountains in Maine, and the 
Wotchish in Canada, and the Taconic between Massachusetts 
and New York. 



202 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHV 

(Master O'Brion sits down feeling well satisfied, and wonders 
why so many hands are still eagerly raised.) 

T. What else, Miss Lowe ? 

Miss L. Miss Wallis omitted to say that the Cumberland 
separate Virginia and Kentucky; that the Alleghany separate 
Virginia and West Virginia, and are found in West Virginia 
and Pennsylvania. 

T. Master Wood. 

Master W. How can the Alleghany separate Virginia and 
West Virginia, and then be found in West Virginia also? 

T. Miss Lowe, defend your statement. 

Miss L. Why, the Alleghany Mountains consist of three 
or more parallel ranges. The middle range is on the State 
line, and the western range is in West Virginia. Farther north 
the line separating the States runs farther east, and nearly the 
whole range is in West Virginia. 

T. Master Wood, do you see the advantage of forming a 
perfect mental picture of the map ? 

Master Wood (very quietly). Yes, sir. 

T. Miss Long still has her hand up, and she is asked to 
speak. 

Miss L. Miss Wallis did not speak of the peaks. 

Miss Wallis. I was not asked to do that, but I know them. 

T. Miss Wallis was not expected to speak of them. Miss 
Long may tell us about the important peaks. 

(Miss Long is not prepared for this sudden call, and makes a 
poor recitation. The teacher then called on Master Edmunds.) 

Master E. Mount Washington, the highest peak in the 
White Mountains, is the best known of any of the peaks, 
because it is so frequently visited. I went to the top of this 
mountain last summer with my father. We left Boston at six 
o'clock in the morning, and reached the foot of the mountain 
about one o'clock. In about an hour we were at the Summit 
House, on top of Mount Washington. The day was very fine. 



PERSONAI- VISITS TO MOUNTAINS 203 

and we could see a long distance. I enjoyed very much the 
two hours spent on the summit. We ate our luncheon on 
the rocks looking down towards the Glen House, which 
appeared very small and directly below us. At three o'clock 
we took the train to descend. Reached Boston about ten 
o'clock in the evening. 

T. Very good. I like to hear of these personal travels. 
How many in the class ever visited the top of Mount Washing- 
ton ? (Six boys and two girls raise their hands.) How many 
have ever seen the mountain 1 (Fifteen pupils respond.) 

(Miss Gage gives her experience of waiting a week at the 
Fabyan House for a good day in which to make the ascent. 
Master Parker was at North Conway last summer when the 
Appalachian Club stopped there, and he wanted to go with 
them on some of their excursions, but his father would not let 
him. He saw some lady teachers who were members of the 
club and climbed the high mountains, and a little girl only four- 
teen years old, the daughter of a professor in New York, went 
everywhere her father did, and took all the hard tramps. 

Several other accounts were given about Mount Washington. 
Miss Perry brought about twenty stereoscopic pictures and her 
stereoscope, which were passed round. 

Several boys had been to the top of Mount Mansfield ; one 
had spent a summer near Mount Monadnock in Jaffrey, N.H., 
etc., etc.) 

T. Master Jenks may tell us about the peaks in the Black 
Mountains now. 

Master J. Several peaks among the Black Mountains are 
higher than Mount Washington, such as Mitchell's and Cling- 
man's. According to our geography, the latter is about four 
hundred feet higher than Washington. This peak was named 
after Gen. Clingman, who measured several mountain-peaks 
among the Balsams, Smokies, and Blacks in North Carolina. 
Mitchell's Peak was named after Professor Mitchell of the 



204 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

State University, who made barometrical measurements of these 
mountains, and was the first to announce their superior height 
to the White Mountains. In the summer of 1857 he lost his 
life by falling down a perpendicular precipice, while crossing 
the Black range. He is now buried on the top of the mountain 
which bears his name. 

My father has spent several summers in this region. He 
says there is a good deal of timber there, much of it very 
valuable, the trees extending to the summits of the mountains. 
The fishing and hunting are excellent. I have an older brother 
who is hunting and camping out among these mountains now. 
My father brought home from North Carolina many specimens 
of valuable gems. He also found there a large emery-mine. 

T. Very good. It is said that fifty-seven peaks in North 
Carolina are over six thousand feet in height. The Blue Ridge 
is the water-shed of this system, as no stream severs it. 
According to geology, as set forth in Shaler's First Book, on 
the desk, the mountains of North Carolina were the first lifted 
above the sea, so they are the oldest ; hence one high peak is 
appropriately called the " Grandfather." (See " Heart of the 
AUeghanies," p. 261.) There is a section of North Carolina 
situated in Macon County, in the south-western part of the 
State, which is an elevated plateau over four thousand feet high. 
Owing to its altitude, nearness to the ocean and Gulf Stream, 
and the great abundance of vegetable life and pure moving 
water, it is rapidly becoming known as a health resort. Per- 
haps in the future it will be visited more than the White 
Mountains for this purpose. 

What have I just told you ? 

Miss Webster repeats it with commendable accuracy. 

T. Those who have lived there all their lives thus describe 
this country : — 

" The entire region is mantled with forests to the summit of 
every peak ; the valleys are cleared, and inhabited by a happy, 



SLOPES 205 

health)-, and hospitable people. It is rich in picturesque scenery, 
romantic rivers, luxuriant forests, majestic mountain heights, 
valleys of exquisite beauty, quaint villages, cliffs, and waterfalls. 
It is rich in a life-giving climate, brilliant skies, fertile lands, 
pastured steeps, and timber and mineral wealth." ' 

After two boys had recited the gist of the above, the teacher 
said : I made no mistake in calling on Master Jenks, you see, 
class. I hope every one of you will be as ready as he to learn 
various facts from your parents, uncles, and aunts. The next 
may talk about the Central Plain. 

Miss Atwood. According to Guyot, the eastern or main 
slope of North America descends gradually from the Rocky 
Mountains to the Atlantic, interrupted only by the Appalachian 
system, or secondary highlands. The long interior slope be- 
tween these two highlands is called, very properly, the Central 
Plain. As shown on this sand-relief map, it extends from the 
Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, bordered on each side by 
the two highlands. It is triangular in shape, narrow at the 
south, and very broad at the north. It is divided into two 
slopes by the height of land just north of the Great Lakes. 
These slopes are very gradual. 

T. What slopes ? 

Miss A. The slope towards the north, the one towards the 
south. 

T. Master Jones. 

y. The one towards the west is very gradual also. I was 
talking with a neighbor who went to Denver last summer, and 
he said the ascent was not noticed at all as you rode along 
through Kansas and Colorado. 

T. How high is Denver ? 

Master Jones. I think, about five thousand feet. 

T. Who knows how high it is ? 

Miss Thomas. The Gazetteer says it is fifty-two hundred 
feet above the sea. 

' Zeigler's Heart of the Alleghanies, p. 12. 



2o6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. How does the approach to the Rocky Mountains at this 
point differ from the approach to the White Mountains? (Sev- 
eral incorrect answers are given.) What can you see from 
Denver? 

Class. The two lofty peaks, Long's Peak and Pike's Peak. 

T. What does that show ? 

Master Mulligan. It shows a clear atmosphere. 

T. Yes. If you remember the solar-camera pictures, or if 
you have ever seen stereoscopic pictures of the Rocky Moun- 
tains near Denver, you can see in these pictures, by looking 
carefully, that the great western slope of the Mississippi Valley 
continues to the very foot of these lofty mountains, without the 
interruption of any outflanking hills. The Black Hills of Dakota 
are an exception to this statement. 

How does the gradual slope affect commerce ? 

Master Ryan. Makes the rivers large. 

T. Not necessarily. 

Master Hatch. Prevents cascades, and so makes them 
navigable. 

T. Yes. One other point. (After several thoughtful replies 
have been given, the teacher speaks of the many rivers flowing 
from the Rocky Mountains /^ra//^/ to one another.) 

T. What advantages do the farmers living in this country 
have over those in New England ? 

Miss Forbes. It is easier to cultivate a farm which is level. 

Master Pinkhani. They can use machines better, such as 
the mowing and reaping machines. I have read in the papers 
that some of the farmers had engines which will move on the 
prairies. 

Master Pike. They can build railroads easier. 

(After Miss Hayden gave the main facts in reference to the 
Atlantic Plain, the teacher read from the August, 1885, " Atlantic 
Monthly," Mr. Warner's account of " The Lost Pocket-Book in 
the Mica Mining Regions of Roan Mountain, North Carolina.") 



CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA 207 

PART II 
A RECITATION IN A SIXTH- YEAR CLASS 

Subject — Climate of North America 

Object of the Recitation. — i. To ascertain if the pupils had learned 
the facts given them on the charts hung up the day before, which facts had 
been copied into their blank-books at the end of the previous lesson. (See 
p. 291.) 2. To ascertain how fully they understood and remembered the 
explanation given by their teacher in the previous lesson in reference to these 
facts. 3. To hear their extra facts learned from outside sources. 

Preparation made by Pupils. — Study of their blank-books, contain- 
ing the epitome of the climate of North America given on p. 296. Study of 
the short paragraphs on climate in their text-book. 

Consultation of the following books, etc. : Guyot's, Harper's, Swinton's, 
and various other geographies ; Chambers's EncyclopEedia ; Lippincott's 
Gazetteer ; " A Tour in the United States and Canada ; " Jackson's " Alaska ; " 
" Across the Continent," by Bowles ; " Glimpses of the Earth," by Blakiston ; 
" Arctic Explorations," by Kane ; " Mission of the North-American People," 
by Gilpin ; the Malte Brun Geography ; " Iowa Handbook," by Parker ; " The 
Resources of California," by Hittel ; " Life in the Rocky Mountains," by Miss 
Bird ; " Three Years in Mexico," by Stephens ; " Newfoundland," by Hatton ; 
Geographical Readers by Johonnot, Philips, Blakie, and the Standard Geo- 
graphical Reader ; physical geographies, newspapers, magazines, letters from 
friends, etc. 

Preparation made by Teacher. — Consultation of Johnson's Physi- 
cal Geography; Johonnot's Geographical Reader; Dr. Kane's "Arctic Ex- 
plorations;" "North America," by Hayden; "Picturesque America;" 
" American Explorations," by Nourse ; " The Round Trip," by Codman ; 
Hayden's " Geographical Surveys ; " " California," by Hittel ; " Appalachia ; " 
" The Golden State," by McClellan ; " Mexico," by Ober ; " Alaska," by Dall ; 
" California," by Mrs. Dall ; " Santo Domingo," by Hazard ; and " Greenland," 
by Rink. 

THE RECITATION. 

(Reported by Miss Melissa Dornbach, one of the pupils. 
Pupils called by card after the question was asked.) 
Teacher. What causes affect climate ? 



2o8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Master Woodsujn. The latitude, winds, elevation, slope, 
currents, moisture, and surface. 

T. Into what belts of climate would you divide North 
America ? 

Miss Barnes. Into three belts, — the northern, central, and 
southern. 

T. Draw lines to show these belts upon this outline cloth 
blackboard. 

(Miss White draws the lines, and they are slightly changed 
by the criticisms of the class.) 

T. Name the countries in the northern belt. 

Master Lane. Iceland, Greenland, most of British America, 
and northern part of Alaska. 

T. Name the countries in the central belt. 

Miss Hussey. Canada, the United States, British Columbia, 
and — 

T. Miss Whiton. 

Miss Whiton, Southern part of Alaska. 

T. What countries in the southern belt .'* 

Master Kearns. Mexico, West Indies, Florida, and Texas. 

(Many hands are raised the moment the last word is uttered, 
and forty pupils are eager to substitute Central Atnerica for 
the unfortunate Texas.) 

T. What causes affect the climate in the northern belt? 

Miss Way. Latitude, exposure to north winds, and currents. 

T. What currents ? 

Miss W. The current from the Arctic, and the Japanese 
current. 

T. The next may represent those currents on the outline 
of North America. 

(Master Dove draws arrows with red crayon to show the 
direction of the Arctic Current, from Baffin Bay, through Davis 
Strait, and along the coast of Labrador ; and with green crayon 
represents in a similar manner the direction of the Japanese 
Current along the coast of Alaska.) 



ICE AND ICEBERGS 209 

T. Have all the causes been given ? Hands. Miss Colton. 

Miss Colton. No, sir; snow and ice. 

T. Is snow found here the year round, Master Huse.'' 

Master Huse. Yes, sir, in many places. 

T. Miss Way.? 

Miss IV. I think more ice is seen there than snow. Kane 
in his book has a great deal to say about the ice. 

T. Miss Hatch.? 

Miss Hatch. The ice is in the form of icebergs. 

T. Do you think most of it is in that form .? 

Miss H. Yes, sir. 

(Many hands are raised, especially on the boys' side.) 

T. What do you say. Master Bedford } 

Master Bedford. Dr. Hayes, in his book, " The Land of 
Desolation," has much to say about the formation of an iceberg; 
but he speaks of seeing miles and miles of ice on the land and 
on the sea, and only now and then of seeing an iceberg. I 
think there is more ice there in glaciers and in fields of ice than 
in icebergs. 

T. Yes, you are right. Are the fields of ice smooth? 

Master B. No ; they are usually very rough. 

T. Have you seen any pictures of icebergs ? 

Master Merrill. Yes, sir; you showed us several pictures 
with the solar camera. 

T. How high were the icebergs ? 

Master M. They were in some cases two hundred and fifty 
feet, and in one three hundred and fifty feet high. 

T. Is most of the ice in sight in these bergs.? 

Master M. No, sir; three-fourths is below the surface of 
the water. 

T. Three-fourths ? Master Bedford ? 

Master B. Dr. Hayes says seven-eighths is below the water. 

T. Huxley says ice usually floats so that only one-tenth is 
above the water. The pupils had better experiment, and report 
to me in two days from now. 



2IO METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The next may tell me what the climate is in the northern 
belt. 

Miss Willey. Frigid ; ground frozen during the year ; Hud- 
son Bay can be entered during only six weeks ; in some places 
the sun is not seen for several days ; snow falls every month. 

71 Do you think, Miss Willey, the ground never thaws 
out r 

Miss W. I don't know. 

T. Does any vegetation grow there ? 

Miss W. I suppose so. 

7*. How can it grow if the ground remains frozen during 
the year ? Master Dove ? 

Master Dove, It thaws out on top during the summer. 

T. And it remains constantly frozen below. The pupils 
who have learned from their reading additional facts may now 
present them. 

Master Houghton. The average temperature in summer is 
fifty-nine degrees above zero ; in winter it is forty-two degrees 
below. It is ten degrees colder on the west side of the Atlantic 
Ocean on the sixtieth parallel than in the Baltic Sea. 

T. Why? 

Master H. On account of the Arctic Current and the Gulf 
Stream. 

Miss Phelps. Dr. Kane says in his book that no natural 
cold can arrest travel. He says he has walked sixty miles over 
the roughest ice, when the thermometer was fifty degrees below 
zero. 

T. Very good. In which one of his books did you see that 
fact? 

Miss P. In " Arctic Explorations," vol. 2. 

Master Bums. The snow in winter sometimes falls nineteen 
feet in a day. 

T. Such a statement hardly seems possible. 

Miss Phelps. Dr. Kane says, in his " Land of Desolation,'' 



CLIMATE IN DIFFERENT BELTS 211 

that at one time about midnight the sun moved round to the 
north, gradually sunk lower and lower till its upper part was 
just above the horizon, and then the sky became uniformly 
golden. 

Miss Smith. 

" The lands are there sun-gilded at the hour 
When other lands are silvered by the moon : 
The midnight hour, when down the sun doth pour 
A blaze of light, as elsewhere at the noon." 

T. Where did you learn that? It is very appropriate. 

Miss S. In "The Land of Desolation." 

Master Hinckley. In the Arctic regions, sixty degrees above 
in the shade seems very sultry. 

(The teacher then read a short extract from Hall's " Voyage 
in the Polaris," giving an account of the joy experienced by 
his men when the sun returned after an absence of one hundred 
and thirty-two days ; and Miss Hayden read De Long's graphic 
description of " An Arctic Winter Night.") 

T. What causes affect the climate in the central belt? 

Miss Dornbach. The latitude. Mountains. Elevations. 

T. Very well. Miss Hicks. 

Miss Hicks. Moist south winds from the Gulf and Atlantic 
Ocean. Different currents, such as the Gulf Stream and Japan 
Current. West winds from Pacific. 

T. Master McLane may go to the board, and write some of 
\hQ facts about the climate. 

Master McLane wrote the following: — 

Four Seasons Atlantic coast 
Moist Central Plane less moist 
Pacific coast very dry 

(Two-thirds of the room were now on their feet, with hands 
raised, eager for a chance to correct. The teacher waved hia 
hand, and all was quiet. He called the next card, — Master 



212 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Thomas. Master Thomas arose, looked at the blackboard, but 
said nothing.) 

T. I am surprised ! Miss White. 

Miss White. He has no periods. He has misspelled 
"plain." And he has omitted several things: as, teinperate 
should stand first, and be underlined because so important. 
After " Atlantic coast " should be given "lower half Mississippi 
Valley." Before " very dry " should be given "(except west of 
Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range)." 

T. Very good. You may write it all out on paper, and 
bring to desk. Who can correct the board ? (A dozen hands 
are raised. Miss Evers is chosen. Master Darhng was then 
called upon to, give the facts of climate orally, which he did, 
as Miss Evers was writing.) 

T. Explain " Pacific coast very dry." 

Master Holt. Would not the expression Pacific highlands 
be better than Pacific coast 1 

T. How many agree with Master Holt.'' (Most of the hands 
are raised in favor of the change.) You are right, Master Holt. 
Go on. 

Master H. The Pacific highlands are elevated, and so sur- 
rounded by lofty mountains, that the moist winds from the sea 
are prevented from reaching them. This region is cut off from 
fhe west winds of the Pacific by the Coast Range and the Sierra 
Nevada. It is hemmed in by the great Rocky-Mountain chain 
/)n the east. The west winds, full of moisture at the shore, 
strike against the mountain barrier, and give up their moisture 
in the form of rain or snow. So it is with the east winds, and 
hence this section is very dry. 

(After the causes and facts in reference to the climate of the 
southern belt were briefly given, the teacher called Miss Nann 
to go to the blackboard.) 

T. Please draw, with red crayon, a perpendicular line near 
middle of board. Now write near top left column, with yellow 



COMPARISONS 21^^ 

crayon, " Northern Belt." Above right column, " Southern 
Belt." Class do the same on paper. Compare the two belts. 
(Miss Nann, unaided, made the following comparisons :) 

NORTHERN BELT. SOUTHERN BELT. 

Colder. Warmer. 

Abundance of ice and snow. Ice and snow rarely seen. 

Cold winds. Calms. 

Ground frozen constantly. Frost rarely heard of. 

Heavy snowstorms. Heavy thunder-storms. 

Not enough sunshine. Too much sunshine. 

(The following different comparisons were contributed by 
various members of the class, and written on the blackboard 
by the teacher:) 

NORTHERN BELT. SOUTHERN BELT. 

Days and nights very unequal. Days and nights equal. 

Sun's rays oblique. Sun's rays perpendicular. 

People live in close huts. People live out doors. 

People wear furs. People wear litUe clothing. 

People eat meat and fat. People eat fruit and rice. 

Unambitious. Lazy and contented. 

T. It is now the 6th of January. Tell me, Master Dorsey, 
what the climate is in Southern California to-day. 

Master Dorsey. I don't know. 

T. Master Mooar. 

Master Mooar. If we should leave Boston to-day with the 
thermometer at zero, and the ground covered with si.x inches of 
snow, and visit Los Angeles in the southern part of California, 
we should see the people wearing, instead of overcoats and seal- 
skin caps, and furs, thin summer clothes; instead of sitting 
about a stove or regiscer in the house, sitting out doors on the 
piazza, or under the shade, or gathering roses and heliotrope 
from the garden ; while the boys would be picking oranges or 
bananas. 



2 14 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

T. That is not quite true about the thin clothing, as the 
nights are cold. The climate is like ours in September. The 
average winter temperature is about fifty-four degrees. 

T. Compare the climate in the central belt, Atlantic side, 
with the countries exactly east across the ocean. 

Miss Peters. Shall I write it on the board "i 

■ T. Yes. 

Climate of 

Europe, 40° N. United States, 40° N. 

Naples. New York. 

Equable. Changeable. 

Mild winters. Cold winters. 

Warm summers. Very hot summers. 

North and south winds. East and west winds. 

Sky cloudless for months. Clouds and rain frequent. 

Trees in leaf in March. Trees in leaf in May. 

Malaria common. Very healthy. 

T. What was told you about the climate of Sitka 1 Miss 
Porter. 

Miss Porter. The climate there is moist and warm. In 
most winters the thermometer does not register below zero ; 
only four times, I believe you said, in forty years. In one 
winter the ice only formed once, and then it froze only about 
as thick as a knife-blade. Sitka is warmer than Boston. It is 
about as warm as Kentucky. 

T. Give the cause. 

Miss P. This mild climate so far north is due to the Japan 
Current, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific Ocean. 

T. What was said about "jerking meat " ? 

Master Jenks. The climate in Nevada is so dry that fresh 
meat dries by hanging it up, so as to keep sweet for months. 
The same is true of Southern Dakota. You also said the snow 
is evaporated without turning to water. It disappears into the 
air. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF CLIMATE 21 5 

7". How man\- remember what I read you yesterday from 
"Appalachia" about the climate of Cuba? (A dozen hands are 
raised.) 

Master Tufts. In the morning there is a land-breeze. The 
sea-breeze or trade-wind sets in about ten o'clock. Soon clouds 
begin to appear, and usually a local shower begins about one 
o'clock. By three o'clock it is generally fair again. 

T. I am pleased to notice your interest in the subject ; but 
the time is nearly gone, and we will try to finish the lesson 
to-morrow. Meanwhile review the facts in the blank-book, 
make notes of the new facts learned to-day, and bring in as 
much additional matter as each can find on the climate of North 
America. 

THE NEXT DAY. 

Teacher. (After five minutes in review.) All listen carefully, 
now, to my story. 

Imagine it to be Feb. i. I am sailing southward up a river. 
The land along the banks is covered with the richest vegeta- 
tion; flowers in bloom on every side. The people are busy in 
gathering large crops of large-sized oranges. In what belt 
is it? Class. 

Class. Southern belt. 

T. Who can tell exactly where? (A dozen hands are raised. 
After one or two failures, Master Forbes answers correctly : 
The St. John's River, Florida.) 

T. Miss Peters may give a description. 

Miss Peters. It is the last of May. Few clouds are in the 
sky. The thermometer stands at eighty in the shade. Thick 
clothes are uncomfortable. The warm sun has caused the 
grass to grow. Birds are building their nests, and flowers are 
abundant. In what belt ? 

T. Master Holt? 

Master Holt. In the central belt. It may be in New 
England. 



2l6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

(The teacher reads: " It is June. The temperature has slowly 
risen from thirty-five degrees below zero to thirty-five degrees 
above. The whiteness which has so long clothed the hills and 
valleys is giving way under the influence of the sun's warm 
rays. The torrents of the melted snow are dashing wildly down 
the rugged gorges, or bounding in cascades from the lofty 
cliffs, and the air is everywhere filled with the pleasing roar of 
falling water. The sap has started in the willow stems, while 
ice and snow yet lie around the roots. The air is filled with 
the cry of birds ; flocks of eider-ducks sweep over the harbor 
in rapid flight. The seals lie basking in the warm sun. Crowds 
of icebergs are sailing out of the sound towards the south, 
their crystals turnbling from them as they go." ') 

What place does the author describe? (Many hands are 
raised.) Master Pike? 

Master Pike. Alaska. 

T. It is possible. Master Darling? 

Master Darling. I think it is near Greenland. 

T. Why ? 

Master Darling. Eider-ducks are found there. 

T. You are right. Hayes was then in Smith Sound. Miss 
Dornbach may give a description. 

Miss Dornbach. Can I read it ? 

T. Yes. 

D. It is summer. The nights are oppressively warm ; the 
days so hot, no one ventures to go out in the sun. Every thing 
is drying up. The cocoa-palms wave their long leaves wildly in 
the wind. The bananas and mangoes are crying for rain. Fear- 
ing the dangerous fever common to the country, I arise at four 
o'clock A.M., take the morning train at five, and soon begin to 
rise higher and higher as I go away from the coast. In a few 
hours I am twenty-five hundred feet above the sea, in a new 
climatic zone, and dare to breathe the pure air without fear of 

' Altered from Hayes's Open Polar Sea. 



CLIMATK IN MEXICO 21 7 

the yellow fever. The breezes here are cool. Oranges, apples, 
and peaches abound, instead of palms. The houses are more 
substantial. Higher and higher I ascend, through tunnels, over 
gorges, winding about. The air by and by is decidedly chilly, 
almost frigid. I put on my wraps. The hills are covered with 
oak woods, the pastures covered with green grass. It is eight 
thousand feet in height. Then I descended into a valley where 
the temperature is about seventy-five degrees. The mornings 
and nights are cool; the climate, temperate. Where did I make 
the journey ? 

T. Hands. (A score are eagerly raised.) 

Class. In Mexico. 

T, When did you prepare that ? 

Miss D. Last night. 

T. From what books did you get your facts ? 

Miss D. Ober's " Mexico," and " Three Years in Mexico " 
by Stephens, and what you have told us. 

T. Very well done. The class should imitate Miss Dorn- 
bach. We are ready now for facts in reference to either the 
central or southern belt. 

(Many facts were given. The most interesting were: — 

Gilpin says the climate of the Rocky- Mountain plateau is so 
healthy and pleasant, houses are not necessary. For six years 
he slept most of the time under the open sky. The valley of 
the Mississippi would be a rainless desert, if the trade-winds 
were not deflected northwards by the mountains in the eastern 
part of Mexico. The moisture from the Gulf of Mexico is 
easily carried northward because the shores of the Gulf are 
everywhere so low, scarcely above the sea level. Miss Bird 
says the climate of Colorado is considered the finest in the 
world. The air is very dry ; the rainfall below the average. 
Dews are rare, and fogs unknown. The sunshine is bright, and 
three-fourths of the days are cloudless. People sleep out doors 
six months of the year. 



2l8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY' 

Barnes's Geography says that the storms passing over the 
North Central States originate in the Rocky Mountains, and 
travel eastward. 

Harper's Geography says that the intense heat of the West 
Indies' is modified by the trade-winds.) 

T. The pupils who have selections may read as far as there 
is time. 

(One pupil read about a sudden storm, which Dr. Hayes 
describes in " Land of Desolation." 

Another read N. P. Willis's contrast between the climate 
of Europe and America, as given in Johonnot's Geographical 
Reader. Master Jones read an account from some newspaper, 
of a family buried for three days under the snow in Nevada. 
Another pupil read about " The Black Man's Paradise in 
Jamaica." 

Master Jenks read part of a letter from his father in the 
mountains of North Carolina, describing the healthfulness of 
that region. 

The teacher read from Jackson's " Alaska " Joseph Cook's 
account of the two great oceanic currents.' He also read the 
following extract from a friend's letter : — 

" Half-Way House, Jamaica, Nov. 30. 

"It is interesting to notice the nonchalance with which these 
people are preparing for winter. They have not stopped a crack in 
their houses, — and their houses are nearly all cracks ; they have 
not harvested a potato, nor put a ton of hay in the barn, — of course 
not ; they have no barns to put it in, and do not appear to be inclined 
to build any ; they do not know what barns are. There is nothing 
in the cellar for winter, — they have no cellars, don't know any thing 
about them ; and, strangest of all, they have precious little in their 
houses. They do have houses, some of them ; others have only 
little bamboo huts, that keep off a little sunshine and rain. 

" It is rarely that you can find food enough in a house for a lunch, 
at any time except lunch-time. They live ' from hand to mouth,' 
I Page 293. 



EXTRACT FROM A LETTER 2I9 

Some one might say. No, not so much as that even ; for it is easier 
to leave the food in the ground, or 011 the tree, till it is wanted, than 
to find houseroom for it. 

" In the ground are yams, potatoes in variety, cassava, arrowroot, 
etc. On the trees are cocoanuts, bread-fruit, — I had some for 
dinner, — chirimoyas, sweet sops, sour sops, avocato pears (some 
times called alligator pears), bananas, plantains, pineapples, oranges, 
limes, mammees, granadillas, coffee, chocolate, nutmegs, cinnamon, 
vanilla, — well, a whole pantry outfit; every thing good for man or 
beast, to be had almost for the taking, at any hour, all the "dslicacies 
of all the seasons." 

Sugseslivc Questions. 

1. How manv different maps have you ever seen of North 
America .'' 

2. What is the difference between a physical and a political map 
of North America ? 

3. Why is color used on the political ma]:> .^ What does it sig- 
nify ? 

4. What other matters are shown on such a map besides location .'' 

5. What kind of a map shows elevation best .'' Why? 

6. Are all the features of North America shown on any one map ? 
Why not ? 

7. Is north always at the top of a map ? 

8. In crossing North America from east to west how would the 
country appear ? 

9. What other country would be similar in appearance.' 

10. If a pupil looks for the reti/ North America instead of the 
map of it, where would he find it ? 

11. Which side of North America is the longest ? 

12. What irregularity in the coast on one side has a similar one on 
the other side ? 



CHAPTER XI 

SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY 



The proper object of the teacher's most profound study is not, 
then, the course of study, or the text-book, but the child himself. 

S. T. Duttoiu 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Crocker's. Methods of Teaching Geography. 
Geikie's Methods of Geography. 
How to Teach, by Kiddle and others. 
Johnson's Physical and Descriptive Geography. 
Hughes's Class-Book of Modern Geography. 
Peavey's Manual of Geography. 
Reclus's The Earth and its Inhabitants. 
Richardson's School Manual of Modern Geography 
Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel. 
Nichol's Topics in Geography. 
Longman's School Geography. 



CHAFl^ER XI 
SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY 

IMPORTANCE OF PROPER CLASSIFICATION OF TOPICS — FIRST YEAR: WHAT TO STUDV 
— TALKING AND READING — HELPS — PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. SECOND YEAR: 
SAME SUB-TOPICS AS FIRST YEAR. 

THE proper arrangement of topics for the different 
classes is one of the most important matters connected 
with the topical study of geograpiiy. In many schools such 
an arrangement is never attempted ; in only a few is it 
wisely done by practical teachers who desire to carry out their 
own theories in real teaching. Wherever this arrangement 
is neglected, a vast amount of time is wasted through foolish 
repetitions, the teaching of useless details, and the present- 
ing of subjects in an unphilosophical order. Time is also 
wasted because the work of the lower teacher does not fit 
into and prepare the way for that of the upper. The proper 
arrangement of topics for each class is just as important 
and beneficial for the school as the programme of studies 
is for the city. The latter is quite general in its character, 
and is usually prepared by the superintendent of schools ; 
the former enters largely into details, and can best be pre- 
pared by inspectors, assistant superintendents, or the prin- 
cipal of the school. Each arrangement should be more or 
less individual, and adapted to the requirements of the 
particular school in which it is to be used. 

223 



2 24 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

In the preparation of such an arrangement, much assist- 
ance can be obtained from consulting such a valuable work 
as Methods of Teaching Geography, by Miss Lucretia 
Crocker, late supervisor of Boston schools. This little 
book, costing only sixty cents (School Supply Co., Bromfield 
Street, Boston), is the result of a life-work of enthusiastic 
study, and is crowded with the most valuable suggestions 
and condensed information. Topics in Geography, by 
W. F. Nichols, Holyoke, Mass., will not only help teachers 
in arranging topics correctly, but also assist them in 
teaching these topics. How to Teach, by H. Kiddle and 
others, New York, is also recommended. 

The arrangement of subject matter for study presented 
below is founded upon the requirements in geography in a 
large city, where the schools are well graded. Its practical 
working is only possible under such circumstances. Each 
teacher must contract or enlarge it to suit his own school. 
The attempt is made in this and the following chapter to 
arrange subjects according to the mental capacity of the 
pupils, to present them in a natural order, and to give each 
class some advance work to do. It is believed, if such an 
assignment of geographical work were carefully followed in 
a school, it would save a large amount of time now wasted 
by repetition and drill on non-essentials. The pupils the 
first year are supposed to be about nine years of age. 

FIRST TEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

a. Study distance, direction, points of the compass. 

b. Study map language. 

Test the pupils in measuring distances and length, with 
the eye and with a ruler. 



FIRST YEAR OF STUDY 225 

Make a plan of the desk ; then with objects upon it ; 
schoolroom, ground- floor, school-yard. 

Explain and draw to different scales, as one foot to an 
inch. 

Read map symbols on wall maps. 

Study the surface of the town, boundary-lines, then draw 
maps of immediate vicinity from pupil's own observation. 
Study maps of vicinity. 

c. Lessons on natural features from observation'^; from the 
moulding-board, pictures, maps. The pupils, with a little 
help from the teacher, make the definitions from their 
observations. Mould the town, representing a mile by an 
inch. 

d. Study the world as a whole. 

Form of the world illustrated. The two motions stated, 
but not fully explained. 

Show from globe hot parts, cold parts ; zones, four hemi- 
spheres, two continents, six grand divisions, seven oceans 
(North Atlantic, South Atlantic, etc.). Direction and com- 
parative size, as Asia, largest ; Europe, smallest ; Africa, 
second ; Australia, south of Africa, etc. 

Two of the grand divisions (North and South America) 
compared in reference to climate, animals, a few productions, 
and some striking characteristics of the people. 

II. Talking ami Kcading. 

Talking. — Tell an imaginary journey ; as, to New Hamp- 
shire for hay, to New- York State for salt, or to New- York 
City to see the Brooklyn Bridge, to Pennsylvania for coal, 
to Cahfornia for gold, etc. Talk about school district, 
parish, ward, villages, native town ; about San Francisco ; 
post-office, express business, divisions of time. 

1 See page 234. 



226 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Surface of the town or city. 

Local animals. 

Characteristic animals in each grand division. 

Occupations and habits, dress and mode of life, of people 
far away, as Chinese, Japanese, Bedouins, Esquimaux, exiles 
in Siberia, Hottentots, etc. 

Reading. — Read from Scribner's Geographical B.eader, 
Guyot's Introductory Geography, or Our World No. i ; 
Seven Little Sisters, Each and All, Miss Andrews ; Under- 
foot, Miss Nichols ; Ajiimal Life, Miss Marwood. 

History. — Stories of voyages, of discoveries, of settle- 
ments of New England, of the Revolution, of progress 

and inventions. 

III. Helps. 

Globes, hemispheres, maps, colored crayons, pasteboard 
outlines of the grand divisions, plans, charts, outline map 
on blackboard cloth, Frye's rehef maps, moulding-board, 
magnifying-glass, etc. 

Objects. — Fur, leather, spices, nests, eggs, stones, shells, 
toys ; any kind of articles, obtainable by loan or otherwise, 
referring to foreign countries. 

Pictures of animals, — Prang's Natural History Series in 
six small books. Pictures of places, of cities, mountains, 
rivers, costumes, etc., such as are found in geographies and 
books of travel, if stereoscopic and photographic pictures are 
not accessible. 

Books (in addition to those given under Reading) for 
consultation : Science Primers, Physical Geography, Astron- 
omy ; Aunt Martha' s Corner Cupboard, Miss Kirby ; Little 
Lttcfs Wonderful Globe, Miss Yonge ; Life and her Children, 
Miss Buckley ; Little Folks in Feather and Fur ; Rollo Books. 



FIRST AND SECOND YEAR OF STUDY 227 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

Each class should have its advance work, its outside or 
extra work, and its review work. I'he advance and review 
work is placed under " I. Study." The extra work comes 
under " II. Talking and Reading." It can be called " Special 
Oral Geography." Great freedom and latitude should be 
allowed the teacher under this head. It may be wise for 
the teacher to omit or change much herein arranged. EacJi 
topic should be touched upon in the most simple and element- 
ary way. Frequent repetitions will be necessary. Allow 
the scholars to tell all they know first. No especial order is 
necessary in taking up the topics under "II." The more 
"Study" and "Talking" can be mingled together, the 
better. It is desirable to take these topics together, instead 
of consecutively. The reading exercises from the books 
given, or their equivalents, will furnish excellent opportuni- 
ties for language and talking lessons. 

In Sixth Class, " I. Study, b,'' be careful and not spend 
too much time. Many interesting pictures to illustrate work 
can be obtained from the different geographies, illustrated 
papers, etc. 

Frye's relief maps are made, and sold at reasonable 
prices, by the Bay State Publishing Company, Hyde Park, 
Mass. 

SECOND YEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

Finish grand divisions (see d, Class Six). Study North 
America topically according to schedule i. Chap. III. 



2 28 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

II. Talking and Reading. 

a. Talking. — Characteristic /rz^// of each grand division. 
Races, occupations, vegetation, the weather, atmosphere, 

forms of water. Population of the district, ward, town, or 
city, as a help in comparison. 

Coast-hne ; difference between maps and globes. Plants 
used for food, clothing, fuel, medicine, building-material. 
Industries of the town ; the railroads. 

Useful plants, vine, palm, rice, sugar-cane, dye-woods, 
cotton. 

What is found under the surface of the earth, — building- 
stones, coal, metals, gold, silver, etc. What is found in 
water, — fish, whales, salt, corals, sponges, etc. 

b. Reading. — Finish books in Class Six. Littie People 
of Asia, Miller ; Bodley Family Abroad ; Zig-Zag journeys ; 
Hunting Adventures, Knox ; Adrift in the Ice Fields, Hall. 

History. — More stories on the same subjects mentioned 
in First Year's Work. Also stories of the Presidents, of 
social and industrial life, of the civil war. 

III. Helps. 

(^See Sixth Class.) 

Objects. — Minerals, ores, coal, whalebone, cotton, indigo, 
oranges, bananas, lemons, articles on breakfast-table, etc. 

Pictures. — Vegetable life (see Swinton's Grammar School 
Geography), fruit-trees, mining, hunting, fishing, and other 
industries (see Appletons' Geography), Indians, Esquimaux, 
etc. Twelve series of Geographical Readers. 

Books for Consultation. — Those of Class Six. Also, 
How Plants Groiv, Gray ; Science Ladders, Nos. i and 3 ; 
Boys of Other Countries, Taylor ; Round the World, by a 



SECOND YEAR OF STUDY 229 

Bow Smiles ; Spectacles for Young Eyes, Landor ; Rocky 
Mountains, Miss Bird ; Santo Domingo, Hazard. Antic 
Regions, by Hayes, Hall. Kane, Markhani, Greeley, etc. 

Pictures. — Pictures of cities in the geographies ; bird's- 
eye views (see Swinton's, Harper's, and McNally's) ; mining- 
operations, whaling, cotton - field, cotton-mill, rice - fields 
(Harper's, p. 46), sugar-cane field (McNally's, p. 85) ; 
Niagara Falls (see Warren's, and fourth volume of any geo- 
graphical series) ; public buildings, as Capitol at Washington, 
at Albany, Old South Church, Independence Hall, New City 
Hall San Francisco {New Eclectic Geography), etc. Excel- 
lent pictures will be found in any of the sets of Geographical 
Readers, such as Blackie's, Whitehall's, Philip's, etc. Good 
pictures of the canons of the Colorado, of Pueblo restored 
and a room inside, big trees, wonderland of the Yellowstone, 
etc., can be found in Zig-Zag Journey to the Occident ; The 
At/antic Islands, Benjamin ; Niagara ; American Scenery ; 
Homes of America, Lamb ; American Pictures, Manning. 

Books for Consultation. — (See Sixth and Fifth Classes.) 
Florida, Mrs. Robbins ; Heart of the White Mountains, 
Drake ; The Great South, King ; Rocky Mountains, Miss 
Dall ; Indian Traits, Thatcher ; Greenland, Hayes ; Races 
of Mankind, Brown (vol. i.) ; Underfoot, Miss Nichols; 
Physical Geography, Geikie ; Science Primers, — Natural 
Resources of the United States ; Mines afid Mining, Jones ; 
From Fifth Avenue to Alaska. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

In taking up North America in this class, very httle time 
should be spent on position, on the names of places, 
mountains, or rivers, as such and unassociated with some 



230 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

interesting fact. But human and animal life, productions, 
commerce, imaginary journeys, all that is wonderful, grand, 
and marvellous, should receive all the time circumstances 
vi^ill allow. Reineviber, children kaiyi indirectly and by asso- 
ciation. North America is not to be studied now with the 
care and detail it will be in the fourth year of study. Try 
to get the children to talk, to tell a continuous story about 
the subject. Let the first maps be drawn on the north side 
of the room. 

No piece of apparatus is more valuable than the outline 
map painted on the blackboard in oil, for it can be used in 
such a variety, of ways, both in teaching and in recitation. 
The helps mentioned above, or their equivalents, are easily 
obtained in most cities in this country, by a little effort on 
the part of the teacher. The pupils themselves will gladly 
help. Get one new piece of apparatus at a time, one speci- 
men, one picture, one book. Splendid pictures are found 
in the various sets of geographical readers. 

The children will become intensely interested if the 
teacher will spend half an hour a week in talking about and 
asking questions in reference to subjects they know some- 
thing about already : such as the post-office ; express busi- 
ness ; any leading industry near the school, in which some 
of the parents are engaged ; the common animals and insects 
that are found near the school ; the inequahties of the 
surface near by. In developing any of these topics, the 
teacher should at first, by questions, call out all the infor- 
mation possessed by the pupils. The blackboard should be 
used for illustration, and to record the points made from 
simple illustrations used ; as, postage-stamp, envelope, etc., 
when the post-ofifice is the subject. 



STUDY, TALKING AND READING 23 1 

THIBD TEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

a. United States as a whole, topically (using topics similai 
to those given for previous class, in previous article). 

Mould the country. 

Trace outline of United States, and fill up the map as the 
study proceeds. Commerce of United States. 

b. Then the following sections, using same topics : New 
England (if not taken) ; Middle States ; Atlantic States ; 
Gulf States. One section moulded. 

c. Some of the following representative States : Massa- 
chusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas. 

d. Mathematical geography reviewed and enlarged. Form, 
size, motions; zones, parallels, meridians. (Illustrated, 
talked about, and drawn.) Latitude, longitude, circles, etc. 
(not from book). 

e. Review the work of previous classes. 

II. Talking and Reading. 

Talking. — (Any omitted subjects given in previous class.) 
Boston, trade, wealth, money ; roads, stage-coaches, street- 
railroads, canals, railroads. More practice on map-reading. 

Occupations in eastern and southern parts of United 
States made prominent : as, — 

Mining for coal and iron in Pennsylvania ; cotton-raising, 
cotton manufacturing ; fishing for cod, for whales ; other 
manufacturing (especially any in the vicinity). Show how 
occupations are influenced by climate, surface, etc. 

Air, — necessary to life ; in motion (wind). Moisture in 
the air, — clouds, rain, dew (familiar illustrations). 



232 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Prominent cities in eastern and southern part ; as New 
York, Philadelphia, Washington, New Orleans. Government 
and religion (not from book). 

Reading to the class as time permits : The Sunny South, 
Ingraham ; Wild Life in Florida, Townshend ; Eastward 
Ho ! Rangeley Lakes, Farrar ; A Trip Eastward, E. Abbott ; 
A Summer Cruise; Adrift in the Lee Fields, Hall; Cast 
Away in the Cold, Hayes ; Among the Lighthouses, 
Crowninshield. 

History. — The more interesting and vital topics of 

the United States history should now be 7-ead from some 

good text-book, such as Barnes's, Scudder's, Johnson's, or 

Higginson's. 

III. Helps. 

(^See Same in Fifth Class.) 

Sonnenschein and Allen's atlas of raised maps ; putty or 
plaster- Paris raised map large enough for the class to see ; 
or Frye's raised maps. Outline map on blackboard cloth ; 
review charts ; physical charts ; scrap-book. 

Objects. — Iron from Pennsylvania ; soft, hard, and irides- 
cent coal ; silver ore from New Hampshire or Massachusetts ; 
granite from Concord, Cape Ann, Quincy; sandstone from 
Portland, Connecticut ; coral and sponges from Florida ; 
cotton-plant from the South, etc. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

There is no greater waste of time than in studying each 
State separately by itself, as is usually done in most text- 
books. The topical method obviates all this loss of time 
and energy, by collating and comparing facts. For exam- 
ple, instead of teaching what are the productions of each 
separate State, the topical method tries to lead the child to 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 233 

learn where are the noted corn, wheat, rice, cotton, and 
sugar tracts or sections. Questions should be used with 
the topical method. 

What railroad leads from your town across the country? 
What are the four largest trunk lines in your vicinity? What 
kind of business does each one do ? ^Vhere is the nearest port ? 

What are the leading industries of your town, State, sec- 
tion ? A class at this stage of geographical study should be 
ready to answer hundreds of just such practical questions. 

In some towns, teachers have spent much time upon 
locality in Asia or Greenland, and neglected the places near 
home. Home locality should be carefully studied. Chil- 
dren ought to know all the towns lying about the home 
town for a radius of ten or more miles. 

Do not neglect the progressive map as a means of aiding 
the memory. Remember the reviews. A review chart will 
create much interest, and save time and strength. The 
largest blackboard in the room may be divided into six or 
more columns, and each column headed by some important 
topic, such as surface, drainage, climate, the people, etc. 
Then the pupils are called to write by single words facts 
learned during the study. 

The putty necessary to make a large raised map costs 
from five to ten cents. Putty can now be purchased of al- 
most any color, and kept moist by the addition of a little oil. 

In all attempts to trace, use the best tracing-paper pro- 
curable ; but if the regular quality is not easily obtained, or 
is too costly, thin manilla paper will make a good substitute. 
A practical scrap-book can be made at any time, with little 
labor or cost, by cutting out every other leaf from some 
large book, like an old disused " record-book of attendance." 



234 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

THE BEGINNING OF GEOGRAPHY 

It is of the greatest importance that children gain at 
first correct concepts of the words to be used in this new 
study, such as '"'hill," "mountain," "valley," "island," 
" peninsula," " river," " bay," " spring," " lake," etc. True 
conceptions of the meanings of these words cannot be 
obtained from dry definitions, however well committed to 
memory, or from representations of them on maps, or even 
by the use of the moulding-board. Pictures convey much 
truer ideas. Correct ideas of these typical forms are 
obtained only from nature. 

We therefore urge teachers in the lower classes to study 
the first year home geography, as is done in Quincy, Mass. 
In all small cities and towns this can be done easily with 
the teacher's help in going with her class on short excur- 
sions after school or on Saturdays. This is a common 
practice in Germany. In large cities teachers can in most 
schools take the children afternoons, one room at a time, 
to the parks. We have successfully carried out this plan 
for three years. The beginners in geography are taken 
some pleasant afternoon to Franklin Park, and their 
attention called to more than sixteen different type forms 
in this beautiful place, consisting of hills, valleys, lakes, 
cHffs, brooks, water-partings, etc. The children are well- 
behaved and deeply interested. The impressions thus 
formed are retained for years afterwards. 



CHAPTER XII 

SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY, Concluded 



No drearier task can be set for the worst of criminals than that 
of studying a set of geographical text-books such as the children 
in our schools are doomed to use. Pages of " tables," — " tables " of 
heights, and " tables " of areas; " tables " of mountains, and " tables " 
of tablelands ; " tables " of numerals, which look like arithmetical 
problems, but are really statements of population : these, arranged in 
an alphabetical order, or disorder, form the only breaks in a chaotic 
mass of what are amusingly styled "geographical " facts, but which 
turn out to be simply names, — nanies of rivers, and names of hills; 
names of countries, and names of towns. Books such as these are 
simply a]5peals to memory ; they are handbooks of mnemonics, in- 
stead of handbooks of geography. — Professor J. R. Green, England. 



235 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



[Consult the list of books given at beginning of Chapter XL] 
236 



CHAPTER XII 

SIX YEARS' COUBSE OF STUDY, Concluded 

FOURTH YEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

NORTH AMERICA and Europe : Central States, Pacific 
States, Territories. 
Representative States and Territories : Illinois, California, 
Nevada, Alaska. 

United States reviewed as a whole. 
Study from the following topics : — 



I. Position, etc. 



3. Surface 



I. Highlands 



3. Drainage. . ... . . 

4. Climate. 

5. Political Divisions . . 

6. Natural Divisions (very few) 



1. Hemispheres. 

2. Zone. 

. 3. Shape. 

4. Comparative size. 
, 5. Progressive map, diagram and outline. 

r I. Ranges. 
I. Mountain J 2. Peaks. 
Systems. 1 3. Heights. 
t 4. Volcanoes 
J [2. Plateaus. 

2. Lowlands. 

3. Draw Profile. 

1. Water Partings. 

2. Lakes. 

3. River Systems. 



1. Named in order. 

2. Capitals. 

3. Principal Towns (only a few). 



238 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



7. Life 



1. Vegetable. 

2. Animal. 

1. Races. 

2. Population 

3. Occupation. 

4. Manners and Customs. 
1 5. Education. 

6. Religion. 

7. Government. 

8. Commerce. 
8. Productions. 

g. Exports and Imports. 

10. Journeys. 

11. Comparisons throughout. 

Or, if you prefer, from Schedules Nos. i or 2, on p. 46. 

Memory-maps of North America and Europe. Compari- 
sons should henceforth be made prominent. 

History. — Discoveries, settlements, colonial wars, dis- 
agreements of the Colonies and England, causes of the 
Revolution. 

II. Talking and Reading. 

Talking. — Canals. Light-houses. The sea. Gulf Stream. 

Commerce between America and Europe. Domestic com- 
merce. 

Occupations of the West, as gold, silver, and copper 
mining ; grazing, wheat-growing, lumbering. 

Places noted for natural scenery. 

Colonization, immigration. 

Reason for locality of cities. 

Prominent cities in the West, — 
ver, San Francisco, Portland, etc. 

Prominent cities in Europe, ■ 
Venice, St. Petersburg, Berlin, etc. 

Topics omitted in previous classes. 

Reading to the class as time permits : Alaska, Whym- 
per \ Knocking Round the Rockies, Ingersoll ; Among the 



Chicago, St. Louis, Den- 
- London, Paris, Rome, 



FOURTH YEAR OK Sl'UlJY 239 

Sioux of Dakota; The Open Polar Sea, Hayes; Arctic 
Explorations, Kane ; The Family Flight, E. E. Hale ; 
Three Vassar Girls Abroad, Mrs. Champney ; Bodley 
Grandchildren in Holland, Scudder ; Hans Brinker, Dodge ; 
Fred Markani in Rnssia, Kingston ; Young Folks Abroad. 

III. Helps. 

Wall maps, globes, Sonnenschein and Allen's atlas of 
raised maps, Frye's raised maps, physical charts, printed 
schedule of topics, drawing-paper, outline-maps on black- 
board cloth, review charts, scrap-book, etc. 

Objects. — Products of the sea, such as shells, coral, 
whalebone, whale's tooth, sea-weed, sponges, star-fishes, 
mollusks, etc. 

Gold, silver, lead, and copper ores ; minerals ; wheat ; 
specimens of wood ; bark of the big trees, etc. 

Sealskin and other furs. 

Manufactured articles from various parts of Europe 
brought by pupils. 

PrcTURES. — Canals, light-houses, marine plants, fishes, dif- 
ferent kinds of ships. 

Gold, copper, and silver mining (Harper's, p. 50 ; Maury's, 
p. 64). 

Grazing (McNally's, p. 64) ; farming in the West (Swin- 
ton's, p. 52 ; Harper's, p. 52) ; Yosemite (Harper's, p. 63) ; 
Canon (Guyot's New Intermediate, p. 50 ; Harper's, p. 
61); Yellowstone (Harper's, p. 60; Swinton's, p. 56); 
Estes Park (" Rocky Mountains," Miss Bird). 

Stereoscopic pictures of Europe, and such pictures as are 
found in Harper's, McNally's, Swinton's, Maury's, Apple- 
tons', and New Eclectic geographies, and in all juvenile and 
most adult books of travel referring to Europe. 



240 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Books for Consultation. — Alaska, Dall ; California, 
Nordhoff; Greenla7id, Professor Rink; The Great Frozen 
Sea, Markham ; The Polar World, Hartwig ; Upper Yellow- 
stone, Wyndham ; Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces, 
Bishop ; Walks in London, Hare ; Notes on England, Mrs. 
Hawthorne ; English T?-aits, Emerson ; Notes on England, 
Taine ; Holland, De Amicis ; Home Life in Germany, 
Brace ; Ltalian Jotirfieys, Howells ; Walks in Rome, Hare ; 
Russia, Wallace ; Land of the Midnight Sun, Du Chaillu ; 
Seven Spa?iish Cities, and the Way to Them, Hale ; Scram- 
bles among the Alps, Whymper ; Manual of Commerce, 
Browne; Qcean Wonders, Damon; The Ocean, Reclus, 
Hartwig, and Figuier ; Half-Hours Underground ; Physical 
Geography, Guyot ; Mining West of the Rocky Mountains, 
Raymond ; The New Eldorado, Ballou. 

Apgar's system of map-drawing, from its simplicity and 
direct help in drawing outlines, is superior to any thus far 
examined. (See Swinton's and Warren's Geographies.) 

The books given under " H. Talking and Reading " are 
especially adapted for reading to the class, either by teacher 
or pupil. Those under " Reading for Consultation " contain 
valuable information u[)on the subjects to be taught. They 
are not so popular as the first-named, and yet many of them 
are well adapted to the more mature pupils. 

Teachers must not expect too much of their pupils in 
mathematical geography. The subject is difficult for adult 
minds to comprehend. Every part here must be explained 
and illustrated over and over again. Only simple facts 
should be taught, leaving scientific facts for the first class. 

A large number of subjects are given in " H. Talking and 
Reading," in order that teachers may select what seem 



FOURTH YEAR OK STUDY 24 1 

appropriate for their classes. Probably few teachers will 
find time to teach them all. Many of these subjects can 
be taught in connection with the study of the country 
related thereto ; as, for instance, the best time to speak 
about mining for coal is in the lessons for the Middle 
States. 

Outline-maps drawn in oil upon blackboard cloth are 
invaluable helps to teaching in all classes. The cloth, all 
mounted, in different sizes and at different prices, from 
$1 to $2, may be obtained of the School Supply Company, 
15 Bromfield Street, Boston, Mass. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

The above schedule of topics can easily be modified to 
suit individual circumstances. 

Commerce is worthy of considerable attention, and might 
be enlarged upon under the following subdivisions : — 



I. Domestic 



a. Receipts. 
i. Shipments. 
a. Imports. 



What? 
Whence? 



{ 
{ 

f Wh 
I Wh 



What? 
Whither? 



What? 

/hence? 



2. Foreign , . 

1 , „ . j What? 

I &. Exports. < ,,„ . , „ 
(. '^ j^ Whither? 

„ . , I By land. 

3. How carried on s r. 

I By water. 

When Europe is studied, comparisons should be frequently 
made under each topic ; e.g., under population, consider the 
density of Belgium, four hundred and eighty-one to the square 
mile, with that of Massachusetts, two hundred and twenty- 
one to the square mile. Consider the size of London, five 



242 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

millions, with that of Pennsylvania, five millions. Consider 
the increase in the United States during the last ten years, 
of thirty per cent, compared with that of Great Britain in 
the same period, of nine per cent. Remember the United 
States' now manufacture more in value in a year than Great 
Britain. Comparisons of this nature should not be carried 
so far as to become tedious. 

One country should, during the year, be neatly written 
out in a blank-book by each member of the class. These 
books should be repeatedly examined by the teacher, and 
carefully criticised in reference to neatness, exactness, and 
completeness. This blank-book will be valuable in propor- 
tion to the amount of work done in it by the pupil rather 
than the teacher. 

A teacher can make good colored inks for his class by 
purchasing five-cents' worth of aniline dyes at the nearest 
drug store, and mixing with water. 

FIFTH YEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

South America, Africa, and Asia, by full schedule of 
topics. 

As time permits, study details of one or more countries, 
as Brazil in South America, Egypt in Africa, China in 
Asia. 

Progressive maps of the grand divisions in advance, 
begun with the study of the outline, and continued as the 
study progresses. Comparisons should be constantly made 
between the natural features, climate, manners, and customs, 
etc., of the country under consideration, and other countries 
already studied in this or previous classes,. 



FIFTH YEAR OF STUDY 243 

Work of tliird class reviewed as far as possible, especially 
North America and Europe. 

Memory-maps of South America, Africa, and Asia. (See 
physical maps in Appletons', Swinton's, and Harper's ; and 
commercial map in McNally's.) Mountain ranges, rivers, 
natural divisions, etc., learned in same order ; as. Obi, Yenisei, 
Lena, Amoor, Hoang Ho, Yangtse-Kiang, etc. 

History. — The conflict between the English and French. 
The union of the English Colonies. The war for inde- 
pendence. Growth of slavery. 

II. Talking and Reading. 

Talking. — Drainage, glaciers, icebergs, ocean-currents. 
Forms of water. 

Causes affecting climate. 

Our wants, — food, clothing, shelter. 

Vegetation (see Peavy's Manual of Georgraphy, pp. 38 
and 68). 

Races, forms of government, religion (taught more fully 
than in Class Four). 

Proofs of the form of the earth ; size, latitude and 
longitude, meridians, parallels, great and small circles, equa- 
tor, poles, prime meridian, standard time, variation in length 
of degrees of longitude, zenith, nadir. 

Motions of the earth ; effect of the same. (See Miss 
Crocker's Notes, p. 24.) 

Prominent cities in South America, — Rio Janeiro, 
Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, Quito. 

In Africa, — Cairo, Cape Town, Algiers. 

In Asia, — Peking, Canton, Tokio, Calcutta, Jerusalem. 

Reading to the class as time permits : 



244 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

A Thousand Miles' Walk across South America, Bishop ; 
On the Banks of the Amazon, Kingston ; The Naturalists 
on the Ainazon, Bates ; Brazil and the Brazilians, Fletcher ; 
Family Flight, Hale (Part II.) ; Great Thirst Land, Gill- 
more ; Boy Travellers, Knox (5 vols.) ; Gorilla Hunters, 
Ballantyne ; Rip Van Winkle'' s Travels in Asia and Africa, 
Van Wert ; Child Life in Japan, Ayrton ; The Wonderful 
City of Tokio, Greey ; Our Boys in Lndia, French ; Our 
Young Folks in Africa, McCabe ; China, Japan, Lndia, 
Eden ; Rob Roy 07t the Jordan, McGregor ; Land of the 
White Elephant, Vincent; Rifle and LLound in Ceylon, 
Baker. , , 

III. Helps. 
(See Third Class.) 

Blackboard globe ; outline-maps of each grand division 
on blackboard cloth; printed schedules of topics for the 
pupils, review charts, etc. Reynolds's physical and astro- 
nomical charts. 

Objects, — Caoutchouc, cinchona bark, tapioca, cocoa 
from Para, coffee-berry, coffee, dye-woods, Brazil-nuts from 
Brazil, etc. Lima beans, native woods, cochineal, cocoa, 
vanilla-beanpod, vegetable wax, etc., from South America. 

Olives, dates, ebony, ostrich-feathers, ivory, indigo, acacia, 
>red pepper, cloves, gum-arabic, etc., from Africa. 

Raw silk, opium, jute, indigo, gutta-percha, camphor, 
gamboge, tamarinds, bamboo, tea, palm-wood, olive-wood, 
joss-sticks, chop-sticks, fans, boxes, Chinese and Japanese 
ornamental work, etc., from Asia. 

(Many of these and other objects will be brought by the 
pupils, if encouraged by the teacher.) 

Pictures. — Helpful pictures will be found in Guyofs 



FIKTH YEAR OF STUDY 245 

Physical Geography, pp. 47, 48, 53, 56, 58, 93, 94; in 
most geographies, especially Harper's, Swinton's, Apple- 
tons', McNally's, Maury's, and New Eclectic. 

Egypt (Land of the Pharaohs), Boy Travellers, No. 4; 
People of Africa (Uncivilized Races, Wood ; Baker's, Stan- 
ley's, and Livingstone's works) ; Africa (McCabe, Van 
Wexi ; Stanford's Compendium, Africa) . 

Peru and Amazon (Marcoy's) ; Peru (Squier). 

Brazil (Agassiz and Smith). 

Northern Coast of Asia ( Voyage of the Vega). 

China (Thomson and Eden). 

Japan (Knox's Boy Travellers, No. i, and Greey's books) ; 
India (Knox's Boy Travellers, No. 3, French and Eden). 

Cocoa-nut palms, grand pagoda, fakirs, howdahs, shops, 
Taj Mahal, and many cities, etc., in Indian Piclures. 

Asia, general (Stanford's Conipendiiun of Geography, — 
Asia ; Prime's Around the World ; Wanderings in Foiir 
Continents). 

Books for Consultation. — South America, Marcoy ; 
Brazil, Smith ; Across Patagonia, Dixie ; Pen/, Squier ; 
A Thousand Miles up the Nile, Edwards ; Nile Tributa7'ies, 
Baker ; Modern Egvptians, Lane ; Across Afica, Cameron ; 
Through the Dark Continent, Stanley; Last Journals, Liv- 
ingstone ; The Heart of Africa, Schweinfurth ; Boat Life 
in Egypt and Nubia, Prime ; Arabia, Palgrave, Taylor ; 
Japan, Bird ; Ten Years' Travels, Thomson ; Land of the 
Veda, Butler ; Indian Alps, Lady Pioneer ; Voyage of the 
Vega, Nordenskiold ; Siberia, Atkinson ; Through Persia by 
Caravan, Arnold ; Around and About South America, 
Vincent. 



246 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Practical Suggestions. 

It is better for the pupils to read to the class than for 
the teacher. The appointment of a " reading-hour " will 
help to carry into practice this idea. If there is a pubhc 
library accessible, then the teacher should help the pupils in 
finding the best books on each country. One of the most 
practical ways of doing this is to give them the library num- 
bers for the books. There are now plenty of good and 
very interesting books on the above grand divisions. Most 
of these books are beautifully illustrated. 

If the teacher will appoint some day in the course of the 
study of a country like Asia, when articles from that coun- 
try are requested to be brought for a loan collection, she 
will be. surprised at the results and the interest. The writer 
has known over three hundred different articles brought by 
a single class to illustrate a grand division, ranging from a 
five-cent Japan fan up to a three-hundred-dollar India shawl. 

In some of the large cities, illustrated papers, with privi- 
lege of selection, are sold for five cents each, which contain 
several good pictures for school purposes. Sometimes a 
single magazine will have scores of good available illustra- 
tions. See Harper's Magazine for July, 1885, and the 
^Century for March, 1885. 

SIXTH TEAR OF STUDY 
I. Study. 

Oceanica, West Indies, Mexico, Canada, and Greenland, 
by selected topics. 

Review the grand divisions by full schedule of topics. 
In this review, progressive maps of the grand divisions 
should be made prominent. 



SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 247 

Comparisons and classifications should be constantly 
required. (See Harper's Geography, note, p. 75 ; and 
Guyot's Geographies.) 

As far as possible, study the world as a whole, making 
general comparisons of the different countries in reference 
to physical features, political conditions, productions, man- 
ufactures, manners and customs, commercial relations, etc. 

Let the pupil study the kind, locality, and extent of 
the mining industries of each grand division ; railroads, 
education, condition of women, etc. 

As time permits, study topically such representative coun- 
tries of the world as United States, Brazil, England, France, 
Germany, Italy, Russia, China, Japan, India, Egypt. 

Such representative cities of the world as New York, 
Boston, London, Paris, Venice, Rome, Pekin, Tokio, 
Benares, Cairo, Rio Janeiro, Batavia, etc. 

Motions of the earth. Apparent motions of the sun. 
Changes of the seasons. Variation in the length of day 
and night. " Standard Time." Observations in reference 
to all these subjects. 

Constant, periodical, and variable winds. Ocean cur- 
rents, polar and equatorial. Return currents, — Gulf Stream, 
Japan Current. 

Forms of water, — invisible vapor, rain, fog, glaciers, 
icebergs, rivers, etc. 

Coral islands, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. 

History. — Review history previously studied. Admin- 
istrations. War with Mexico. Civil war. Reconstruction. 



248 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

II. Talking and Reading. 

Talking. — Commercial trip round the world. 

Pleasure-trip round the world. Places visited for scenery; 
for health. 

Manners and customs of the Chinese, Japanese, Hindoos, 
Negroes, Indians, Esquimaux, French, Germans, Spanish, 
etc. 

Education in England, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, 
Russia, China, Japan, India, etc. 

Noted buildings in the world, such as Taj Mahal in Acra, 
India ; Pyramids in Egypt ; St. Peter's in Rome ; Notre Dame 
in Paris ; Parliament Houses in London ; cathedrals in Milan, 
Cologne, Salisbury, etc. ; Capitol in Washington, etc. 

Talks about, and reviews of, books of travel read by 
pupils. 

Railroad routes, railroad centres, steamship routes. 

Foreign and domestic commerce, etc. 

Prominent cities in the advance : In Oceanica, — Auck- 
land, Batavia, Honolulu, Manilla, Melbourne, Sydney, and 
Wellington. 

In West Indies, — Havana, St. Domingo. 

In Mexico, — Mexico, Vera Cruz. 

In Canada, — Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec. 

In Greenland, — Lichtenfels. 

Reading to the class, or by the class, as time permits : 
Voyage of the Yacht Sunbeam, Brassey ; Boys of Other 
Countries, Taylor ; Round the World by a Boy, Smiles ; 
Australia, Eden ; At Home in Fiji, Gumming ; Tlwough 
a7id Through the Tropics, Vincent ; Island Life, Wallace ; 
Adventures of the Young Naturalist, Gillmore ; Camps in 



SIXTH VKAR OF STUDY 249 

the Carihbees, Ober ; A Geographical Reader, Johonnot ; 
Around the World, Prime; Island of Fire (Iceland), Head- 
ley ; Arctic Advejitures, Sargent ; physical geographies, — 
Guyot, Johnson, Maury, Ansted, etc. ; The Subterra?iean 
World, Aerial World, Polar World, Hartwig ; The Bottom 
of the Sea, Sonrel ; Countries of the World, Brown ; Ocean 
Wonders, Damon ; Ice-Pack and Tundra, Gilder, etc. 

III. Helps. 

(^See Prev'wits Classes.) 

Globes of various kinds, such as hemisphere globes, black- 
board globes, large and small globes, magnetic globes, Jos- 
lin's " Solar Telluric Globe " (globe mounted at an angle 
of forty-one and one-half degrees). Maps of every variety, 
such as simple outline-maps of the grand divisions, drawn 
on one piece of manilla paper, upon same scale, to show 
comparative size ; outline-maps of the grand divisions on 
blackboard cloth ; Guyot's large physical maps ; same, small 
size, on cardboard ; Warren's physical maps, with Apgar's 
method of map-drawing ; Hughes's political maps ; Son- 
nenschein and Allen's atlas, containing thirty-one raised 
maps ; Frye's relief maps. 

Reynolds's physical and astronomical charts ; review 
charts, chart giving comparative heights of mountains ; 
picture album, scrap-book ; printed schedules of topics ; 
enamelled colored crayons ; two picture-frames, large and 
small, with movable board for showing pictures to pupils. 
School solar camera (invented and made by Charles F. 
Adams, Normal School, Worcester, Mass.). 

Objects. — Coral, jute, manilla-hemp, pumice-stone, san- 
dal-wood, shells, spices, etc., from Oceanica. 



250 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Banana, citron, cocoa-nut, hard woods, ginger, lemons, 
logwood, pineapple, sugar-cane, tamarinds, etc., from the 
West Indies. 

Cochineal, jalap, mahogany, quicksilver, sarsaparilla, va- 
nilla, etc., from Mexico. 

Cannel-coal, codfish, gypsum, various woods, etc., from 
Canada. 

Cryolite, eider-down, seal's skin, spermaceti, whalebone, 
whale's tooth, etc., from Greenland. 

Alum, brass, cinnabar, coal, cocoa-nut and husk, coke, 
coral, cotton-plant, flint, furs, glue, graphite, hops, leather, 
brimstone, marble, mica, mercury, nickel ; ores such as 
copper, gold, iron, lead, silver, zinc ; parchment, pewter, 
quartz, rice, rock-salt, sandstone, slate, soda, sponges, starch, 
sugar, vellum, woods, wool, various kinds of manufactured 
articles from the vicinity of the school, etc., — to represent 
North America. 

Allspice, Brazilian diamonds. Brazil-nuts, caoutchouc, 
cloves, coffee-berry, cocoa-nut, indigo, Lima bean, mahogany, 
palm-nuts, tapioca, vanilla-bean, vegetable-ivory-nut, etc., to 
represent South America. 

Cloves, dates, ebony, gums, ivory, olives, ostrich-feathers, 
red-pepper, spices, etc., to represent Africa. 

Assafoetida, attar of roses, bamboo, Chinese book, chop- 
sticks, camel's-hair scarf or shawl, camphor, dates, fans, 
ginger-root, gum-arabic, gutta-percha, idols, India-ink, lac, 
lacquered ware, malachite. Mocha coffee, manilla-hemp, 
musk-sac, opium, olive-wood, porcelain, platinum, preserved 
ginger, raw silk, rice-paper, rhubarb, sago, sandal-wood, 
shellac, tea, teak-wood, tortoise-shell, etc., to represent Asia. 

Agate, alabaster, amber, borax, chalk, citron, coral, cork, 



SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 25 1 

eider-down, emery, ermine, hemp, lapis lazuli, lava, lemons, 
licorice, limes, linen, macaroni, madder, model of Swiss 
cottage, mosaics, nutgalls, opal, oranges, otter, prunes, 
raisins, sable, sponges, sulphur, tin, topaz, toys, Venetian 
glass, various kinds of manufactured articles, etc., to repre- 
sent Europe. 

(Pupils, after a little encouragement, will bring to the 
school a large proportion of these articles as a " loan col- 
lection." Most of the articles named above, and many 
others, have been thus exhibited by the different classes in 
the Lewis School in a single year.) 

Pictures. — (See previous classes.) 

Helpful pictures will be found in all the geographies ; 
in Harper's publications of travel ; in Harper's Magazine 
and Weekly ; in The Century, etc. 

For pictures of Oceanica, see Netv Guinea by D'Albertis ; 
New Zealand, by Taine ; The Malay Archipelago, by 
Wallace ; etc. 

Mexico : See Alexico To-day, by Brocklehurst ; Old 
Mexico, by Bishop ; Summcrland Sketches, by Oswald ; etc. 

West Indies : See Santa Domingo, by Hazard ; Camps 
in the Caribbees, by Ober. 

Greenland : See Rink's book on Greenland ; The Coun- 
tries of the World, Brown, Vol. I. 

In addition to books above : North America, — See Pic- 
turesque Atnerica ; America Illustrated, by Williams ; The 
Great South, by Ed. King ; The JFhite Hills, by Thomas 
Starr King ; Arctic Researches, by Hall ; Polar Reconnais- 
sance, by Markham ; History of the Northern Pacific Rail- 
road, by Smalley ; Arctic Explorations, by Kane ; Alaska^ 
by Whymper ; The Pacific Coast, by Finck, etc. 



252 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

South America : See South America, by Marcoy, 2 vols. ', 
Brazil, by Fletcher, by Smith, by Agassiz ; Peru, by Squier ; 
Vejiezuela, by Paez, etc. 

Africa : See Land of the Pharaohs, by Manning ; Pyra- 
mids, Temples, and Tombs, by Belzoni ; Thebes, by Abney ; 
Nile Gleanings, by Stuart ; Family Flight through Egypt 
and Syria, by Hale ; Algeria, by Herbert ; Our Young 
Folks in Africa, by McCabe ; Boy Travellers, Parts IV. and 
v., by Knox ; all of Baker's and Stanley's works, etc. 

Asia : See Little People of Asia, by Miller ; China and 
its People, by Thomson ; Lndian Alps, by a Lady Pioneer ; 
Indian Pictures, Urwick ; Pathways of Palestine, by Tries- 
tram ; Those Holy Hills, by Manning ; Iiidia and its Native 
Princes, by Rousselet ; Japan and the Japanese, by Humbert ; 
Through Siberia, by Lansdell ; Voyage of the Jeannette, by 
Mrs. DeLong; The Voyage of the Vega, by Nordenskiold, etc. 

Europe : Land of the Midnight Sun, Du Chaillu ; In the 
East, Mrs. Brassey ; Scrambles among the Alps, Whymper ; 
English Pictm-es, Manning ; French Pictures, Green ; Italian 
Pictures, Manning ; Spanish Pictures, Manning ; Spain, 
Davillier ; Swiss Pictures, Manning ; Spanish Vistas, La- 
throp ; Spain, Dore ; Pyrenees, Dor^ ; Scottish Pictures, 
Manning ; Land of Lome, Through Cyprus, Thomson ; 
Rome, Hall, Taine, Wey. 

For the world in general : See Le Tour du Monde. 

Books for Consultation. — Schwatkd's Search, Gilder ; 
High Latitudes, Lord Dufferin ; Notes on the Northern 
Atlantic, Brown ; Hindoos as They are, Bose ; Pen Pictures 
of Europe, Peakes ; To the Cape for Diainonds, Travels 
round the World, Coffin, Seward ; Malay Archipelago, Wal- 
lace ; Andes and Amazon, Orton ; Voyage of Challenger, 



SIXTH YKAR OF STUDY 253 

Thomson ; Nile Gleanings, Stuart ; On the Desert, Field ; 
Corca, Gritifis ; East of the Jordan, Merrill ; Turkestan, 
Schuyler; Across America and Asia, Pumpelly ; A Flight 
to Mexico, Aubertin ; Explorations and Discoveries, Jones ; 
The Indian Empire, Hunter ; Cuban Sketches, Steele ; The 
West, 1880, Porter; Due West, Ballou ; JFild Tribes of 
the Soudan, James ; Methods of Teaching Geography, Miss 
Crocker ; Cotnparafive Geography, Ritter ; Physiography, 
Huxley ; Forms of JVater, Tyndall ; Man and Nature, 
Marsh ; The Ocean, Tides, Currents, Jordan ; Uncivilized 
Races, Wood; Commercial Products of the Sea, Simmonds ; 
The Surface Zones of the Globe, Johnston ; Tlie Earth, 
Reclus ; Compendium of Geography and Travel {d vols.), 
Stanford ; Mission of the North-American People, Gilpin ; 
Journal of the American, and of the Royal Geographical 
Society ; Reports of the Stnithsonian Institute. 

A more complete list of books will be found in Chap. XX. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 

The progressive map in this class should be made entirely 
with ink. Do not allow the class to do careless work ; at the 
same time do not spend too much time on perfection of 
outline, or on shading the mountains or coast-line, so as to 
resemble too exactly the book. The printed outlines pub- 
lished by Heath & Co., Boston, save to this class much time, 
and should be used freely. 

Allow this class to use colored inks ; red for the produc- 
tions, blue for the animals, etc. By means of arrows, lines, 
and various marks, indicate upon these progressive maps the 
prevailing winds, currents, countries, east and west, important 
parallels and meridians, time, voyages, etc. 



254 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



In this class certainly, if not earlier in the course, a cabi- 
net should be begun to illustrate geography. If the first 
season only six specimens are brought together to illustrate 
each grand division, a good and encouraging commence- 
ment has been made. These six, carefully kept till the next 
class appears, will soon multiply to twenty-five apiece. In 
several schools in and near Boston, valuable collections have 
grown out of such small beginnings. 

Comparisons should frequently be called for in this review 
recitation work. Children of this age are delighted with 
them. They should be made in a variety of ways, and be- 
tween not only countries, but rivers, mountains, people, and 
climates ; as, for example. 



Chinese Women. 

Small in size. 

Deformed feet. 

Never educated. 

Kept in seclusion. 

Looked upon as slaves. 

Daughters are considered burdens, 

and of little value. 
Have to work very hard. 
Wear trousers like the men, etc. 



American Women. 

Medium size. 
Natural feet. 
Usually educated. 
Allowed to go into public. 
Looked upon as helpmeets. 
Daughters treated just the same 

as sons. 
Have hard work done for them. 
Wear skirts and dresses, etc. 



CHAPTER XIII 

WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA 



The simplicity and the grandeur of North America, the extent of 
the spaces over which it rules, seem to have prepared it to become 
the abode of the most vast and powerful association of men that has 
ever existed on the surface of the globe. — A. Guyot. 

To understand this simple grandeur is not an extravagance, but a 
matter-of-fact duty. — The Author. 

America is another name for Opportunity. Our whole history 
appears like a last effort of the Divine Providence in behalf of the 
human race. — Eynerson. 



255 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Bird's Life in the Rocky Mountains. 
Boddam-Whetham's Western Wanderings. 
Bishop's Four Months in a Sneak-Box. 
Bishop's Voyage of Paper Canoe. 
Canadian Pictures. 
Chase's Over the Border. 
Cook's Eastern Tour. 
Ball's Alaska. 

Freeman's Impressions of America. 
Gilpin's Mission of the North-American People. 
Green's Among the Selkirks. 
Hardy's Acadie. 
Heart of the Alleghanies. 
Hubbard's Maine. 

Ingersoll's Knocking 'Round the Rockies. 
King's White Hills. 
Lawson's Coast-lines. 
Leighton's Life at Puget Sound. 
Marshall's Through America. 
Pierrepont's Fifth Avenue to Alaska. 
Powell's Reports. 

Stanford's Compendium of North America. 
Stanley's Yellowstone. 
Waraman's Trip to Alaska. 
Webb's California and Alaska. 
Westgate's Yellowstone Park. 
Zigzag Journey to the Occident. 
256. 



CHAPTER XIII 
WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA 

DIRECTIONS — BRIEF HISTORY — POSITION — SIZE — A TRIP AROUND THE COAST — 
SURFACE — DIVISIONS — ROCKY MOUNTAINS — ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS — " ON 
horseback" — MOUNTAINS OF NORTH CAROLINA — COMPARISONS — PLAINS — 
DRAINAGE — NAMES OF RIVERS — SYSTEMS — THE GREAT LAKES — DESCRIPTION 
OF FOUR RIVERS — MISSISSIPPI — ST. LAWRENCE — COMPARISONS — COLUMBIA 
RIVER — COLORADO — ON THE FRAZER 

[Directions to the teacher. — The matter published in this and the 
two following chapters has been given to several classes, by about one hour's work 
each day for five or six weeks, and these classes examined at the end of the time. 
The average of the examination has varied from eighty to eighty-seven per cent. 
The reason so long a time has been taken, is because each year this happened to be 
the continent taken upjzfsi by the topical method; and the class wrote out the matter, 
as we proceeded, in large blank-books. In the topical method very little time is given 
directly to location and names. These are thoroughly learned by association. About 
half of what is here given on North America will be acquired with sufficient accuracy 
by reading or telling to the class once or twice. The parts which may be appropriately 
read are indicated by smaller type.] 

I. BRIEF HISTORY' 

THE JVe7v JVor/d was discovered in 1492, at San Salva- 
dor, by Columbus, an Italian, sailing under the Spanish 
flag ; but it was named after his friend, Amerigo Vespucci. 

The Continent of North America was first discovered at 
Labrador, by an Englishman, named John Cabot. 

De Soto was the first to discover the Mississippi River ; 
Cartier, the St. Lawrence ; and Balboa, the Pacific Ocean. 
The Red Man owned and occupied the whole country 

* Nos. I. and II. may be dictated to the pupils, or written on the board. In younger 
classes I. and II. should be taken up at the end of North America. 

257 



258 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

when these discoveries were made. These Indians were 
divided into two classes, — those of the North, and those of 
the South. The Southern Indians, occupying Mexico and 
Central America, were highly civilized, and entirely different 
from the Indians who lived in the present limits of the 
United States. History affords no sadder story, than the 
record of their cruel conquest by Cortez. 

Gradually the Spaniards settled in the southern part of 
the new country ; the English along the Atlantic Coast ; the 
French about the St. Lawrence, the Lakes, and the Upper 
Mississippi. 

Each claimed land indefinitely from their settlements, hence 
their claims overlapped. The Spanish nation decreased in 
power, and soon only occupied St. Augustine and Santa Fe. 

The French and English increased in numbers and 
wealth. They quarrelled about the land ; war was declared ; 
the English were victorious, driving out the French, and 
getting possession of all the land east of the Mississippi, 
excepting Florida. 

Then came — 1775 — the Revolution, and, later, inde- 
pendence, and the establishment of the Republic of the 
United States. Eighty years of growth and prosperity fol- 
lowed. Then came the secession of the Slave States, and 
the civil war, which destroyed slavery, and restored the 
Union. The three heroes of this history are Washington, 
Lincoln, and Grant. 

II. STRIKING CHARACTERISTICS 

North America is the larger grand division in the Western 
Hemisphere. It is a new country. It is the land of plains, 
in contrast to the continents of the Eastern Hemisphere, 
which are the lands q{ plateaus. 



POSITION OF NORTH AMERICA 259 

North America is noted for its great fresh-water lakes, its 
extensive rivers, unsurpassed falls, valleys, caTwns, geysers, 
gcesii prairies, valuable iimber-latid, wide expanse of remark- 
able /^;Y////l', unlimited extent of \\.% grain-fields , variety and 
abundance of its precious and useful metals, and the great 
area of its coal-fields. 

It is also noted for its rapid growth in population and 
wealth ; for surpassing all other countries in the extent of 
its railroads and telegraphs ; for being first in the amount 
of its manufactures and industrial products. 

In a still more remarkable degree it is noted for the 
harmonious commingling of so many widely different nation- 
alities ; as the land oi freedom in thought and speech ; free 
schools, free press, and perfect religious toleration. 

III. POSITION 

If a person looks down upon a globe placed on the floor, 
he sees the outlines of the grand divisions stretching away 
from the North Pole, arranged in three groups. In like 
manner, a person looking from a great height, as, for 
instance, the North Star, upon the earth, would see the land- 
masses grouped in three pairs, North and South America 
forming one of the pairs. (See globe.) The two grand 
divisions stretch from pole to pole (9,000 miles). North 
America lies opposite the great land-masses of the Old World. 

[Consult the maps in your text-books, and learn in what ZOneS and heiui- 
sphej^S it is, its direction from Europe, South America, etc ] 

Most of the land in North America lies between the 
Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle. 

In Latitude North America extends from about 8° N., 
which is near the Isthmus of Panama, to Cape Washington. 



26o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

84° N., the northern point of Greenland, which point was 
seen and nearly reached by Messrs. Lockwood and Brainard 
of Greely's expedition, 1882. (See Three Years of Arctic 
Service, vol. i. p. 335.) 

In respect to Longitude North America extends from 
14° W., found in the eastern point of Iceland, as far west as 
one can go, 180° W., and then turning east, to the most 
distant Aleutian Islands ; almost half way round the world, 
if measured on the Arctic Circle. 

[The longitudinal centre of the United States is said to 
be two hundred miles west of San Francisco. Can this be 
true, on account of the Aleutian Islands ?] 

[A progressive map of North America should now be commenced according to 
the directions given in chap. vii. To save time, and to help the pupils make a better- 
looking map, supply them with the cheap progressive outline-maps, published by 
Heath & Co., Boston.] 

The shape of North America, as seen on the map, is 
triangular, like South America and Africa, the apex pointing 
southward ; the widest part toward the north. It has 
greater diversity of form than the other triangular grand 
divisions. There are several inland and bordering seas. 
The mountain systems are more varied. All this makes it 
better fitted for the use of man. 

Comparisons. 

The Arctic and Atlantic coasts are nearly equal ; each 
has one great, and many small, indentations : Hudson Bay 
on the north, Gulf of Mexico on the south, peninsulas of 
Alaska and California on the west, and Labrador and Florida 
on the east. The peninsula of Florida points south, and 
Yucatan points north. 




Fig. 57, — The Grand Divisions drawn o. 




same Scale, to sho-w Comparative Size. 



SIZE— A TRIP 261 

[Make other similar comparisons.] 

The coast-Hne of North America is the most irregular of 
the triangular grand divisions. Its numerous border-waters, 
great inland rivers, and fresh-water lakes, give it great com- 
mercial advantages over South America or Africa. 

Size. 

North America, as seen from the chart of comparative 
sizes, is third in extent of the grand divisions. It is larger 
than South America, more than twice as large as Europe, and 
more than half as large as Asia. (See Fig. 5 7 on next page,) 

It is five thousand miles from north to south, and about 
three thousand miles in width on the 50th parallel. North 
America contains about eight million five hundred thousand 
square miles, which equals one- sixth of all the land in the 
world. 

Alaska equals in size the United States east of the Missis- 
sippi River and north of Alabama. [This matter of size is 
easily remembered by writing the names of countries of 
equal size over the States and sections with which the 
comparison is made, as given in Fig. 22, p. 141.] 

A Trip Around the Coast.' 

(In Commodore B 's private yacht.) 

[Length of coastline of North America is 24,500 miles; of South America, 15,700 
miles; of Africa, 16,200 miles.] 

Eastern coast of Greenland is ice-bound and inaccessible. 
Western coast of Greenland high, steep, rocky, islands, 

fjords, icebergs. 
Hudson Bay contains many shoals and reefs. There is ice 

there a greater part of the year. 

* The pupils should have their books open to the map of North America, and the 
teacher or a pupil write the facts on the blackboard. 



202 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Labrador is rocky and desolate. 

Newfoundland contains deep bays and inlets like Scotland. 
The coast is often hidden by fogs. 

Bay of Fundy, noted for its high tides. 

Maine coast is high and rocky. 

The northern part of the Atlantic coast is noted for good 
harbors, such as Portland, Boston, New York, etc. 

Farther south : coast low, extensive swamps, poor harbors. 

Carolinas have low coast, and low, sandy islands on which 
grow sea-island cotton. 

Florida : low and sandy ; navigation round about quite dan- 
gerous, owing to the numerous currents, banks, and 
coral reefs. 

Mississippi delta : a low and unhealthy swamp, covered 
■ with reeds, and affording shelter to numerous alli- 
gators. 

Texas is lined with long, narrow islands, which form many 
large bays and lagoons. 

Mexico has a low, flat, and sandy coast, with no good har- 
bors. The shore is unapproachable during the preva- 
lence of Northers. The lofty mountains west of Vera 
Cruz are seen many leagues seaward. 

Balize is skirted with coral rocks, on which cocoanut-trees 
grow in abundance. 

Central America produces on her eastern shores tortoise- 
shell of the best quality : this part is usually called 
" Mosquito Coast." The western shores of Central 
America and Mexico are generally low, but diversi- 
fied somewhat with spurs of the mountains running 
down towards the sea. Good harbors abound, 
Acapulco being one of the best. 



SURrACK OF NORTH AMERICA 263 

California has a dangerous, rock-bound coast. The Coast 
Range is usually visible from vessels sailing north or 
south to, or from, the Golden Gate. 

Alaska : southern part has rocky and bold shores, with high, 
snow-capped mountains visible ; but north and east 
of Behring Strait the coast is low and swampy. 

The interior of the United States is thus seen to 
be easily accessible to persons approaching from the 
Atlantic Ocean, but to be shut out from the Pacific 
Ocean. The country has always had its doors wide 
open, politically and physically, for immigrants. 

IV. SURFACE 

Both North and South America are the continents of 
plains. The Old World is the continent of mountains and 
plateaus. The plains occupy the greater and better part 
of North America. The general elevation of the plains is 
favorable to man. A large portion of the fertile soil lies be- 
tween five hundred and fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. 

[Surface shown by looking at the different wall-inaps hanging about 
the room, or by the Atlas of raised maps, or by the sand map or 
putty map prepared beforehand by the teacher. See p. 105.] 

In looking at any of these maps, it is easily seen that the 
mountain ranges run nearly north and south. In the Eastern 
Hemisphere they run — [Children look and tell.] 

The Surface of North America is conveniently divided, 
for the purpose of study, into four parts : — 

The Pacifii- Highl.inds, 

The Central Plain, 

The Atlantic Highlands, 

The Atlantic Plain. 



264 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The highest and longest range of mountains is near the 
western coast. It is often called the main axis. [Look on 
the map, and learn its name.] 

The next range in importance is near the eastern coast. 
[What name ?J 

The Central Plain, shaped like the inside of a trough or 
bath-tub, lies between the two highlands. 

The Atlantic Plain, still farther east, is situated between 
what mountains and what ocean ? 

[From the various maps the teacher asks the pupils to learn the extent and direction 
of these different highlands and plains.] 

THE HIGHLANDS, OR MOUNTAINS 

The Pacific Highlands may be divided into an inner 
and an outer system. These, in turn, may be sub-divided 
into the 

r Rocky Sloiintalns, 
Rocky Mountain Plateau (a part of which is called the Great Basin), 
Inner. { Mexican Plateau, 
Cascade Range, 
[sierra Navada. 

Outer. ! Pacific Slope, called in California the Coast Range. 

These mountains are the eastern edge of a great tableland, 
varying in width from four hundred to nine hundred miles. 
"^Pupils notice where widest.] The Rocky Mountains may 
be called the Primaij Cordilleras. The Secondary Cordilleras 
westward consist of the outer system, extending northward, 
even to the peninusula of Alaska and the Aleutian Isles, 
which form a ring of stepping-stones between North America 
and Asia. 

The Rocky Mountains contain many of the highest peaks 
in the country, such as Long's Peak, named after Col. Long, 



THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 265 

who made an expedition to this section in 1819-20 ; Pike's 
Peak, a hundred miles south, named after Major Pike. 

In the winter of 1803 Major Pike made an effort to reach 
the summit, but was obhged to turn back, sadly remarking, 
" Nothing but a bird could reach its snowy summit." Now 
ladies and children ride on horseback to the top ; and the 
United-States Signal Bureau has a station there, in which 
men live the year round. Both of these peaks can be seen 
in a clear day from Denver. 

At the foot of these mountains, in Colorado, are several 
beautiful basins, or very broad valleys, called in Western 
language pares. The most beautiful, near Long's Peak, is 
called Estes Pare. [See picture and description in Miss 
Bird's book, Tlie Rocky Mountains. For a complete de- 
scription of these pares, and the whole area of the Pacific 
Highlands, consult Mission of the North-American People 
by Gilpin, ex-governor of Colorado.] 

[Read selections of Miss Bird's ascent of Long's Peak from her book, Life in the 
Rocky Mou}itains, p. 97, and Codman's ascent of Pike's Peak given in The Round 
Trip, p. 297.] 

Along the 40th parallel, twenty-five peaks of this range 
exceed fourteen thousand feet in height. At the extreme 
ends of the range, rise still higher such peaks as the volca- 
noes of St. Elias on the north, in Alaska, and Popocatepetl, 
on the south (nearly three miles and a half above the level 
of the sea). The latter, meaning the smoking mountain, is 
constantly seen by the children in the City of Mexico, and 
called by them "Popo." 

[For interesting accounts of ascents of this remarkable volcano, see Adventures 
cf Rob Roy by J. Grout, published by the World Publishing House, p. 258; or, better, 
Ober's Travel: in Mexico, p. 373. For a good picture, see Harper's Geography, 



266 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The Atlantic Highlands are far inferior in height, 
grandeur, and extent, to the Pacific Highlands. 

Confronting the Rocky Mountains at a distance of some 
twelve hundred to fourteen hundred miles, these richly 
wooded ranges, often called when taken together " the 
Appalachian Range," form the eastern rim of the great 
basin of the Mississippi. 

Beginning at the south, the most important ranges named 
in order are the following : — 

I. Cumberland. 2. Alleghany. 3. Blue Ridge. 

4. Catskill. 5. Adirondacks. 

6. Taconic. 7. Hoosac. 

8. Green. 9. White. 10. Mountains of Maine. 

II. Wotchish in Canada. 

[Examine map, learn location, and why the names were thus arranged in five lines 
in the above list ] 

The Alleghany may be remembered for its rich iron and 
coal mines; the Blue Ridge, for the Natural Bridge (picture 
in Guyot's Common School, p. in, and Maury's, p. 40) ; 
the Adirondacks, for the great number of small lakes lying 
among the mountains ; the Hoosac, for its tunnel ; the 
Green, for the beautiful sugar-maple so abundant in that 
region, and for the marble quarries ; the White, for its 
grand mountain scenery, giving it the name of " the Alps 
of America." 

Mount Washington is the highest among the White Moun- 
tains. [A mile and a quarter above the level of the sea. 
How many Washingtons to equal St. Elias?] But Mitchell's 
or Chngman's Peak in North Carohna is now known to be 
from three hundred to four hundred feet higher than Mount 
Washington. The railroad up the latter mountain carries 



THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTH AMERICA 267 

every summer, in perfect safety, thousands of travellers to 
the summit of this peak, on which stands a commodious 
hotel called the Summit House. Parties frequently leave 
Boston at 7 o'clock p.m., ride in a " sleeper," reach the top 
of Mount Washington early the next morning, spend several 
hours "among the clouds," and return to Boston in the 
afternoon and evening. From the town of Jefferson a 
splendid view of the high mountains on each side of Wash- 
ington, called the " Presidential Range," is obtained. [See 
pictures in Harper's, Swinton's, and Warren's.] 

Charles D. Warner in his article " On Horseback," in the 
August Atlantic, 1885, says in reference to the Roan Moun- 
tains, a part of the Black Mountains, in the north-western 
part of North Carolina : — 

"The surface of Roan is uneven, and has no cuhninating peak like 
Mount Washington. The surface of the mountains is pebbly, but 
few rocks crop out ; no ledges of any size are seen except at a dis- 
tance from the hotel, and the mountains lack that savage, unsubdu- 
able aspect which the White Hills of New Hampshire have. It was 
difficult to realize that we were six thousand feet above the level of 
the sea. These mountains are tree-covered. They get the name 
Black from the balsams which cover the summits. The black bal- 
sam is neither a cheerful nor picturesque tree. The naked granite 
rocks in sun and shower are more cheerful ; but, to many, this clothing 
of verdure is most restful and pleasing. The rock here is a sort of 
sand or pudding stone. There are none of the great gorges and 
awful abysses of the White Mountains, few precipices and jutting 
crags. Mica and iron are taken out." 

Mountains of North Carolina. — Alleghany means "endless." 
The name Appalachian was first applied by De Soto. Fifty-seven 
peaks in the western part of North Carolina are over six thousand 
feet high. The Blue Ridge is the water-shed of this system in this 



268 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



State, as not a river severs it. This statement is not true in reference 
to the same range of mountains in other States. [Tell the pupils to 
consult their map.] 

According to most geologies, the mountains of North Carolina 
were the first to appear above the water, therefore the oldest ; hence 
one of the high pealcs of the Blue Ridge is called " The Grandfather." 

On the top of Mitchell's Peak is the solitary grave of Professor 
Elisha Mitchell, piled round with stones, without further monument. 

"The entire region is mantled with forests to the summit of every 
peak; the valleys and many of the adjacent coves are cleared, and 
inhabited by a happy, healthy, and hospitable people. It is rich in 
picturesque scenery, romantic rivers, luxuriant forests, majestic 
mountain heights, and valleys of exquisite beauty." — Heart of the 
Alleghanies, p. 1 2. ■ 

The comparative elevations of the eastern half of the 
United States are plainly indicated by a contour map such 
as is shown in Fig. 58. 

Comparisons. 



ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 

Long. 
Wide. 
Continuous. 
Very high. 
18,000 feet. 

Plateaus and parks between. 
Snow twelve months. 
■ Dry. 

Sharp, pointed, jagged tops. 
Generally bare or snow-capped. 



APPALACHIAN. 
Short. 
Narrow. 
Broken. 
Less high. 
6,000 feet (about \). 
Valleys between. 
Snow eight months. 
Moist. 

Round, smooth tops. 
Usually forest-clothed. 



Usefulness of American Mountains. 



All are useful in condensing the moisture in the air, and 
in producing rain. In the West they are storehouses of 
the precious and useful metals (the Rocky Mountains 



ELEVATIONS IN EASTERN UNITED STATES 269 




Fig 53,^ Elevations Shown by Contour Lines. Census 
Report, 1880. 



270 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

being said to contain more precious minerals than any other 
range in the world) : in the east they are covered with 
forests. The AUeghanies are both covered with forests, 
and filled with coal and iron. 

PLAINS 

1. The Central Plain. 

[Examine the maps, and see if this plain extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Arctic Ocean, bordered on each side by the two highlands already described, thus 
forming one of the largest valleys in the world.] 

Some one has said, " In this Central Plain is rolled out, 
in one uniform' expanse of 2,800,000 square miles, an area 
of arable land equal in surface to all the valleys of all the 
other grand divisions." 

It is triangular in shape, narrow at the south, and very 
broad at the north. Formerly it was part of a great inland 
sea. 

It is crossed in the middle by a low water-parting called 
the Height of Land, dividing the valley into two slopes. So 
gradual are these slopes, a person might travel from the 
mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mackenzie 
River, and not realize he had experienced any difference of 
elevation. The slope westward from the Mississippi River 
to the Rocky Mountains is also very gradual. He7ice all the 
rivers in this plaiti are navigable for long distances. In the 
valley of the Red River of the North, the land is so level 
that a person crossing it sees first the tops of the trees and 
the houses, just as ships are seen at sea, showing the 
sphericity of the earth. 



PLAINS AND DRAINAGE 271 

2. The Atlantic Plain. 

This plain lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Appa- 
lachian Mountains, and stretches from the Gulf of Mexico 
to Labrador. 

It may be divided into the hilly and the level country. 
South of New York the level country lies near the coast, 
and is separated from the hilly country by the falls at the 
head of tide-water, thus indicating the distance these 
Atlantic rivers are navigable. At the head of navigation 
on each river is situated a large city. 

[Pupils notice location of Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, 
Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, Petersburg, and 
Weldon.] 

[The pupils now should draw the important ranges of mountains on the progressive 
map, and print or write their names in the proper places, as they are on the text- 
book map. An excellent selection to read the class at this point will be found in 
W. G. Marshall's Through America, in the chapter devoted to the Yosemite 
Valley.] 

V. DRAINAGE 

North America is richer in navigable rivers than Asia, or 
any of the grand divisions of the Old World. 

1. Water-Partings. 

There are tJiree plainly marked water-partings indicated 
on any map of North America. 

1. The Pacific Hi!,'hlan(ls. 

2. The Atlantic Highlands. 

3. The Height of Land. 

[The teacher should call attention of class to flow of rivers from these water- 
partings.] 

The South Pass in the Rocky Mountains is the one 
great continental divide. From this vicinity, the land 



272 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



descends towards the Gulf of California, the Pacific Ocean, 
the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi Valley, the North 
Atlantic and the Arctic seas. 

[Look on the map, and see how the rivers flow from the South Pass in various 
directions.] 

Thus towards the Mexican Gulf run the Rio Grande and 
its companion rivers of Texas. Down the " Great Prairie 
Plains " descend the Red River, Arkansas, Missouri, etc. 
All of these run due east, parallel to one another, very 
straight, and with few rapids, and they flow into the great 
central trough, the Mississippi, which runs from north to 
south across their general direction. 

From the map, learn the order in which these, the impor- 
tant rivers of this country, are named, and their respective 
locations : — 



f. Yukon. 

2. Mackenzie (named after Sir A. 

Mackenzie). 

3. Saskatchewan (swift current). 

4. Nelson. 

5. St. Lawrence (given by Cartier, 

1535)- 

6. Mississippi (father of current). 

7. Missouri (mud water). 



8. Nebraska (flat water). 

9. Arkansas (a bow of smoky 

water). 

10. Ohio (beautiful river). 

11. Rio Grande (great river). 

12. Colorado (red). 

13. Columbia (named by Capt. 

Gray, 1792). 

14. Frazer. 



Do the four bordering waters of the country receive the 
drainage of these fourteen rivers? If so, the systems 
might properly be named after them. 



RIVEKS AND LAKES 273 

2. River Systems. 

[Let the pupils find the other rivers from the map.] 

SYSTEM. RIVERS. 

I. Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, etc. 



1. ARCTIC 

2. Nelson, etc. 

2. ATLANTIC ... St. Lawrence, Connecticut, etc. 

I. Mississippi, Missouri, etc. 



3. GULF . . . . , ^. ^ 

( 2. Rio Grande, etc. 

( I. Yukon. 2. Frazer. 

4. PACIFIC . . . . r. , , . r- , ^ 

(3. Columbia. 4. Colorado. 

[The teacher can make a pleasant exercise by writing a part of the above, and 
asking the pupils to fill in the remainder.] 

The Great Lakes. 

These lakes are situated in the central part of the great Central 
Plain, just south of the height of land, in a depression which drains 
towards the Atlantic Ocean. 

They have a shore-line more than three thousand {3,450) miles 
in length. They are connected with one another, thus affording an 
immense system of inland commerce. It is thought that they contain 
one-half of all the fresh water in the world. Each one is so large, it 
seems like a sea, and greatly affects the climate of the country around 
iL 

Lake Superior is three hundred and fifty miles long, and as 
large in area as all the New-England States except Maine. The 
surface of this lake is six hundred feet above the sea, and its bottom 
as many feet below the sea. 

The shores of Lake Superior are everywhere rocky and bluff, and 
rich in mineral wealth and timber. Native copper abounds on both 
the northern and southern shores, and on Isle Royale. Here are 
found beautiful specimens of this ore. The celebrated pictured rocks 
are along the south shore. They are of various colors, as if painted 
by Indian artists, and in the distance resemble castles. 

Lake Michigan is next in size ; twenty feet lower in level, and 
its average depth about the same, Huron is nearly as large and 



2 74 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



deep, and it is on the same level. The shores of both are low 
and heavily timbered. Erie is very shallow, and much disturbed by 
storms. Ontario means beautiful. This lake, though farther north, 
has much less ice in it than Erie. Like Superior, its bottom is as far 
below the level of the sea as its surface is above it. The water in 
passing from Lake Superior to Lake Ontario descends three hundred 
and seventy feet, and only two hundred and thirty feet more to reach 
tide-water. 

[The teacher, by putting the following simple illustration on the blackboard, will 
greatly interest the class in these lakes. See Fig. 59.] 




Fig 59. — The Great Lakes. 

Showing heights above and below sea-level, and with one another. 



Description of Four Characteristic Rivers. 

[Let the pupil by the list of sub-divisions under river-systems, p. 48, learn and 
describe most of the points in reference to each river.] 

Mississippi River. — The Mississippi River, with its longest 
branch (Missouri-Mississippi), rises in the Rocky Mountains, and 
drains the southern slope of the Central Plain. It flows in a south- 
erly direction through the United States, measuring from the source 
of the Missouri to the month of the Mississippi, in the Gulf, forty- 
two HUNDRED MILES, thus making it the longest river in the 
WORLD. 

Its main branch is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, near St. 
Paul. Its course throughout is very winding, and some of the turns 
are called ox-bows. (See Fig. 60.) In the upper part it is bordered 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



275 



by high, steep bluffs, being the margins of the flat prairie level, which 
stretch back to a limitless distance on each side. Between the 
bluffs the great river meanders from side to side, in a broad bottom- 
land of inexhaustible fertility. Farther south the bluffs disappear, 
and the banks become low. 

If the Mississippi were left to itself, it would overflow its natural 
banks for hundreds of miles above the mouth. The planters have 
built continuous lines of earth-embankments, called levees, to keep 
the river in its proper channel. The river is not only constantly 




VICKSBfRG- 



Fig. 60. — The Great Bend in the Mississippi River. 

changing its course, but it deposits sediment upon the banks, so that, 
as a person goes inland from the river, he descends at least four feet 
to a mile. The water in the river is often as high as the second-story 
windows of the planter's house. In springtime these levees fre- 
quently break away, causing dismay to the inhabitants, and destroying 
immense property. In the great crevasse of 1874, steamers sailed 
over the streets of villages. 

At New Orleans the river is one and a half miles wide. Below 
the city are many large sugar-plantations near the river, the dwelling- 



276 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

houses of which are hidden by magnificent trees. Farther down, the 
banks are called the " coast," along which are found the " gardens " 
that supply the " Crescent City " with its vegetables. 

Owing to the muddy character of the water, the river now loses 
all its beauty and picturesqueness. The scenery is very monotonous. 
Twenty miles from the Gulf the great river divides into many branches, 
called passes. The four largest are known as the South-west, South, 
North-east and A Loutre passes. 

Capt. Eads, in behalf of the United-States Government, with 
great skill and at great expense, built in the South Pass "jetties," 
or artificial banks, by which the current is made to deepen its own 
channel. Had not this been done, the conmierce of the river would 
have been seriously impaired by the yearly deposits of mud. The 
river now admits the largest cotton-ships. 

Instead of one grand current pouring into the ocean its mighty 
flood of fresh waters, as is the case at the mouths of the St. Lawrence 
and Amazon, the mouth of the Mississippi consists of numerous arms, 
the principal of which are the four passes mentioned above, flowing 
through low swamps, and forming, from the great quantities of mud 
in the water, numerous islands. This network of creeks, bayous, and 
passes, makes the delta of the Mississippi, which is gradually extending 
itself into the Gulf of Mexico. 

La Salle was the first to pass down the river and into the Gulf 
(1682). But, when he returned from Spain with a large expedition to 
find the mouth of the same river from the sea, he searched for many 
weary months without success ; and his men, incensed by his repeated 
failures, assassinated him. 

Foster, in his Mississippi Valley, says, " The Mississippi River, 
when we consider its great length, the number and character of its 
tributaries, often exceeding the first-class rivers of Europe, the area 
of country which it drains, the vast system of internal navigation 
which it affords, and the populous towns which have been founded 
on its banks, may be regarded as one of the most striking topographical 
features of the earth." 

This river has fifty-seven branches, the most important of which 
are the Missouri, Ohio, etc. 

A distinguished French writer once said of it, " Upon the whole, 
the most magnificent dwelling-place prepared by God for man's abode." 



THE MISSOURI AND ST. LAWRENCE 277 

What Douglas Jerrold said of Australia is true of this 
valley : " Just tickle her with a hoe, and she laughs with a 
harvest." 

[Let the teacher read to the class a few selections from Bishop's Four RIonths in 
a Sneak-Box.} 

"The Missouri River, opposite Bismarck, Da., is very swift, six 
miles an hour ; and it is impossible for the strongest swimmer to save 
himself if once he falls in. The mud will settle on him, clog his 
movements, and bear him under. 

" The river here is very crooked, full of sand-bars, the channel 
changing every year. Great portions of the banks become honey- 
combed by the force of the water, and are constantly caving in with 
a loud thud." — Boots and Saddles, p. 186. 

The St. La.WT'ence River. — The St. Lawrence River, taken in 
the fullest sense of the name, rises in the St. Louis River, which flows 
into Lake Superior. In different parts of its course it is known by 
different names. Thus from the sea to Kingston, it is styled the St. 
Lawrence ; between Lakes Ontario and Erie, the Niagara ; between 
Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the Detroit; between Lakes St. Clair and 
Huron, the River St. Clair; between Lakes Huron and Superior, the 
Narrows, or Sault St. Marie, — all of which sections form a waterway 
of 2,384 miles. 

Lake Superior is, however, the inexhaustible spring of the river. 
It issues from the lake with rapid current, rushes through the Narrows 
of the Sault St. Marie for a distance of twenty-seven miles, and, 
tumbling over a rocky bed, enters Lake Huron. 

This last-mentioned lake is said to be a thousand feet deep, and to 
abound in fish. From the southern extremity of Lake Huron the 
channel contracts to the narrow and swiftly flowing St. Clair River, 
which, sixty miles farther south, expands into a lake by the same 
name. Between this lake and Erie the stream is called Detroit, and 
it contains many islands of considerable size. 

Niagara River is thirty-six miles long, and from half a mile to three 
miles wide. Its course is north, and the stream is divided by many 
islands, of which Grand Island is the largest, and Goat Island the 
most picturesque. 



278 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



The levels of the country here change, by a sudden drop, to the 
level of Lake Ontario, three hundred and thirty feet nearer sea-level. 
(See p. 274.) As the Niagara River approaches its fearful leap of a 
hundred and sixty feet, its waters lash themselves into a fury, and 
surge' like the breakers on a rock-bound coast. This is true to even 
a greater extent below the Falls, at the narrow gorge, appropriately 
called the Whirlpool. 

Goat Island divides the waters of the Fall. On the Canadian side, 
or left bank, the rock is worn into the shape of a horseshoe, and 
hence its name the Horseshoe Falls. This part has a width of 
nineteen hundred feet. 

The American Fall is straight in its line, only one-third as wide, 



A 




Fig. 61. — Profile of Niagara, Falls. 

A, Limestone, a hard rock. B, a softer rock. C, Marl, still softer. 

D, Sandstone, very soft. 



and carrying much less water, but to many observers fully as 
attractive. 

The reason of the falls, and the constant wearing back of the edge 
of the falls, can be explained to a class very easily by drawing on the 
board Fig. 61, and showing the nature of the upper and lower beds 
of rock. 

The Falls, in order to be fully appreciated, must be seen from Goat 
Island, Suspension Bridge, the Canadian Side, and especially from 
behind the vast sheet of water, in the " Chamber of Winds." 

N. P. Willis says of this great wonder of Nature, "Mountains of 
water, belching forth the most appalling sounds ; globes of foam, boil- 
ing with rage ; rainbows with numerous and splendid arches ; rocks 



THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER 279 

bold, projecting over the tumultuous abyss; spray-covered forests, 
decorated with pearly drops." 

The rumble or thunder of the Falls is sometimes heard forty miles 
away, and the trembling of the earth for fifteen miles around ; while 
the column of spray is visible sometimes seventy miles. The soimd 
is not an ear-cracking crash and clang of noises, but it is sweet and 
soft. You can speak to your neighbor without effort. 

The power of this mighty cataract has been estimated as high as 
4,500,000 horse-power ; and some practical people would like to make 
it work, and set dynamos in motion, storing up power, to be conveyed 
hundreds of miles away by electricity. 

For five miles the river flows through its deeply cut channel in the 
solid rock in a very quiet manner, till the great maelstrom, or whirl- 
pool, is reached. After this is passed, the velocity of the river is 
subdued, and it follows a tranquil course to Lake Ontario. 

At the eastern end of this lake, the St. Lawrence River proper 
begins. For forty miles it is studded with innumerable islands. To 
avoid exaggeration, they are called the " Thousand Islands." Li 
summer, tourists visit this section of the river in great numbers, and 
all praise its beauty. 

On the way to Montreal the river widens twice into large lakes, 
and descends several times so as to form rapids, of which there are 
six of some importance, — the Lachine, near Montreal, being the most 
picturesque. 

Below the last-named rapids, the river contracts to about two 
miles, and is spanned by that remarkable iron structure called the 
Victoria Bridge. Montreal stands on an island, and rises terrace 
above terrace, till Mount Royal is reached covered with majestic 
maples and pines. No fairer picture can be seen on this continent 
than the view from this mount, of city, river, and bridge. 

From Kingston to Montreal the banks of the river are very mod- 
erate in height, and the adjoining country, the valley of the river, 
remarkably level. But as Quebec is approached, the country be- 
comes more hilly ; and the banks become higher and higher, until 
they attain the height of Cape Diamond, on which the citadel of 
Quebec stands. 

The view from this fortress of the St. Lawrence seen for forty 



28o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

miles, crowded with innumerable sail ; of the Isle of Orleans; of the 
River St. Charles; of so many fertile valleys, hills, and pretty villages 
near by; and of the bold mountains far away, — is thought by some 
to surpass the views from the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling in 
Scotland. 

The St. Lawrence soon begins to widen into an estuary, as the 
many tributaries greatly increase the amount of the water, especially 
the Saguenay, whose mouth is a mile wide and a thousand feet 
deep. Opposite Iberville the St. Lawrence River is thirty miles 
wide. Two hundred miles farther, the voyager reaches the mouth of 
this mighty stream, and the island of Anticosti, — a favorite resort for 
bear-hunting, salmon and trout fishing. 

"The Saguenay," says B. Taylor, "is not properly a river. It is 
a tremendous chasm like that of the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea, 
cleft for sixty miles through the heart of a mountain wilderness. 
Every thing is hard, naked, stern, silent. Dark gray cliffs of gneiss 
rise from the pitch-black water, and furrows of gloomy green are 
rooted in their crevices, and cover their summits. . . . 

" The water beneath us was black as night, with a jjitchy glaze 
on its surface. The river is a reproduction of the fjords of the 
Norwegian coast." 

Saguenay comes from two Indian words, which xatz-n precipices foi- 
banks. Near Cape Eternity it is eighteen hundred feet deep. In 
some places no sounding-line has been found long enough to touch 
bottom. 

Comparisons. 
[Let the children tell what to write.] 

St. Law/rence. 

Rises in Great Lakes. 

Flows north-east. 

Rocky banks. 

Clear. 

Steady and uniform. 

Straight. 



Mississippi. 

Rises in mountains. 

Flows south. 

Bluffs. 

Muddy. 

Constantly rising and falling. 

Crooked. 

Delta. 

4,200. 

etc. 



Estuary. 

2,000. 

etc. 



COI.UMRIA AND COLORAUO RIVERS 281 

Columbia River. — This river rises on tlie western slope of the 
Rocky Mountains. Part of its sources is in British Columbia, 
and part in the United States. Although it flows, at different 
places, in all the directions of the compass, its general course is 
westward to its mouth in the Pacific Ocean. It is about fourteen 
HUNDRED miles long. 

It is navigable in sections. The first section is to the Cascades 
(a hundred and si.xty miles). Here a portage of si.x miles is neces- 
sary. The second section is to the Dalles (fifty miles). This 
obstruction to navigation is fourteen miles long. The third section 
is a hundred and eighty-five miles long; and the fourth reaches to 
Fort Colville, above the Arrow Lakes in Columbia. 

Its branches are Willamette, Lewis (or Snake), and Clark. 
The two latter were named after Messrs. Lewis and Clark, who took 
that perilous journey over the Rocky Mountains in 1803, and discov- 
ered these rivers. [Graphically described in Northern Pacific Rail- 
road, by Smalley, pp. 12-20.] The valley of the Columbia in British 
Columbia is narrow, and bounded on both sides by snow-clad peaks. 

The Colorado River rises on the western slope of the Rocky 
Mountains; the north branch, called the Green River, coming from 
the South Pass in Wyoming Territory, and the south branch, called 
the Little Colorado, rising among the mountains of New Mexico, 
while the central branch, called the Grand River, starts in the centre 
of the State of Colorado, at the foot of those mighty peaks. Pike's 
and Long's. 

This river occupies the bed of a depression, and flows nearly in a 
southern direction through South-eastern Utah, and along the western 
boundary of Arizona. Most of the branches enter the main stream 
at right angles. Like many other large streams, it cuts its way across 
seemingly impossible obstacles, and presents thereby some of the 
grandest scenery in the world. A large part of the surface of this 
region consists of bare rocks, with no soil or vegetation. The land- 
scape everywhere is of rocks, — cliffs of rock, tables of rock, 
plateaus of rock, terraces of rock, crags of rock; a whole land of 
naked rock, with giant forms carved on it ; cathedral-shaped rocks, all 
highly colored, — buff, gray, red, brown, and chocolate. 

Great cliffs, thousands of feet high, and extending like huge walls 



282 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

for hundreds of miles, change the level of the country at a single 
step. Most of the rivers in this country flow through canons ; i.e., 
through cuts m the mountains which are very deep, and far below the 
general level of the country. The Colorado River runs in a canon 
for over a thousand miles. One of the canons in Arizona is over two 
hundred miles long. 

Major Powell explored this marvellous canon in 1869, and his 
report reads hke fiction. In one place he passed through Horseshoe 
Caiion, which describes an elongated letter U, in the mountains. 

The cliffs here reach a thousand feet in height, and the water 
usually fills the width of the channel ; but occasionally the canon 
opened into a little park covered with a grassy carpet of crimson 
flowers, or patches of blue and yellow blossoms. 

At another place he walked for more than a mile on a marble 
pavement embossed with a thousand different patterns. 

Day after day there were rocks, deep gorges, towers and pinnacles, 
side canons and recesses, thousands of strangely carved forms, and 
mountains blending with the clouds. Sometimes the clouds would 
roll into the canon so as to fill it with gloom ; sometimes they hung 
from wall to wall, forming a roof. Then a gust of wind from a side 
caiion would make a rift in them, and reveal the blue sky above. 
The rocks were of many colors, — white, gray, pink, and purple, with 
saffron tints. The part of the canon below the Little Colorado is 
called " Marble Cafion." Here the scenery is magnificent ; but fifty 
miles below, the river enters the Grand Caiion, which surpasses every 
thing of the kind in the world. 

Major Powell, in describing this part of his trip, says, — 

"The walls now are more than a mile (seven thousand feet) in 
height, a vertical distance difficult to appreciate. ... A thousand 
feet of this is up through granite crags. The steep slopes and 
perpendicular cliffs rise, one above another, to the summit. The 
gorge is black and narrow below, red and gray and flaring above, 
with crags and angular projections on the walls, which, cut in many 
places by side canons, seem to be vast wildernesses of rocks. 

" Down in these grand, gloomy depths we glide, ever listening, for 
the mad waters keep up their roar, ever watching, ever peering ahead, 
for the narrow canon is winding, and the river is closed in, so we can 



THE FRAZER RlVtii 283 

see but a few hundred yards ; and what there may be below, we know 
not. But we listen for falls, and watch for rocks, or stop now and 
then in the bay of a recess to admire the gigantic scenery." 

[If the class is deeply interested, further information can be found in Powell's 
Reports, published by the Government, in Stanford's Coinpendiiitn of Norili 
America, p. 98, or in Zigzag Joicrney to the Occident, last part.] 

The Colorado River for its length of two thousand miles 
contains little water, and consequently it is navigable but a 
^ort distance. [Why is there so little water in this river?] 

On the Frazer River. — The scenery of the Frazer is in some 
places grand in the extreme, and many persons think it excels that 
of the Columbia River. At " Hell's Gate," about ten miles above 
Yale, the river rushes through a channel only fifty yards wide, the 
rocks on each side being perpendicular. The difference between 
the height of the river in summer, at the melting of the snows, and 
in winter, is not less than ninety feet, as may be seen by the high-water 
marks on the rocky walls. 

" Rugged and inaccessible mountains rise to a height of several 
thousand feet, and are so precipitous that a feeling of giddiness is 
experienced when looking up to their snowy summits. A very pretty 
suspension bridge crosses the river about ten miles above Yale, and 
makes a picturesque break in the stupendous character of the scenery. 
Just imagine grand canons and giant cliffs, along whose rugged sides 
the road runs, and whence the swift-rushing river, far, far below, looks 
like a mere silken thread ; wild heights, sometimes bare, sometimes 
pine-clad; snow-capped peaks, rising above ranges of lofty mountains; 
the narrow pass dwarfed by the altitude of the towering rocks on both 
sides, — and you have some of the ingredients of the Frazer scenery. 
— Western Wanderings, Boddam-Whetham, London. 

[With a little help from the teacher, let the children work out a description, in a 
similar manner, of the largest river within three hundred miles of their homes.] 



CHAPTER XIV 

WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA Continued 



North America will rapidly accumulate a population equalling 
that of the rest of the world combined : a people one and indivisible, 
identical in manners, language, customs, and impulses ; preserving the 
same civilization, the same religion, imbued with the same opinions, 
and having the same political liberties. — William Gilpin. 

285 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION^ 



Aldridge's Ranch Notes. 
Abercromby's Weather. Ilhish-ated. 
Boddam's Pacific Coast. 
Brown's Notes on the Northern Atlantic. 
Blodgett's Climatology. 
Custer's Boots and Saddles. 
Ball's Alaska. 

Greely's Three Years of Arctic Service. Illustrated. 
Hayes's Land of Desolation. Illustrated. 
Hazard's Cuba. 
Hatton's Newfoundland. 
Hutchings's California. 
Kane's Arctic Explorations. Illustrated 
Kingsley's At Last. 

Nourse's American Explorations. Illustrated. 
Ober's Mexico. Illustrated. 
Porter's The West. Illustrated. 
Rink's Greenland. Illustrated. 
Rowan's Canada. 
Whymper's Alaska. 
286 



> See also list, p. 322. 



CHAPTER XIV 
WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMEKICA, Continued 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS — SELECTIONS — GREENLAND — ALASKA — POLAR REGIONS — 
BIRCH BARK — BIG TREES — MEXICO — JAMAICA — LETTER — NATURAL DIVISIONS — 
CLIMATE — PECULIARITIES — OCEAN CURRENTS — EPITOME OF CLIMATE — LIFE: 
VEGETABLE — ANIMAL — HUMAN — RACES — POPULATION — OCCUPATION — A CALI- 
FORNIA FARM — A BONANZA FARM — COMPARISONS — MANUFACTURING — MINING 

— GOLD — SILVER — GRAZING — FISHING — LANGUAGE — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 

— EDUCATION — RELIGION — GOVERNMENT 

VI. POLITICAL DIVISIONS 

[Let the teacher draw upon the board two perpendicular lines, so as to make three 
■wide columns, and then ask the pupils, one by one, to name in order the political 
divisions, then the capitals of each, and finally the other important towns not men- 
tioned. The exercise, when finished, will appear like that given below. After 
study, test the pupils by sending them to the board to write and spell without the help 
of the book these divisions and towns. Both exercises will greatly interest them.] 



Countries. 


Capitals. 


Cities and Towns. 


Danish America . . 




Lichtenfels (residence of the Governor). 






Upernavik (spring place) . 


















British America . . 


Ottawa . . . 


Montreal (220,000), Toronto, Quebec, Halifax, 
St. John, Winnipeg, Victoria. 


United States . . . 


Washington . 


New York (1,500,000) Philadelphia (1,000,000,) 
Chicago, Brooklyn, Boston, Cincinnati, St. 
Louis, New Orleans, San Francisco. 


Mexico 


Mexico . . 


Vera Cruz, Tampico, Acapulco. 


Central America . . 




Guatemala, Balize, Havana, Port-au-Prince. 






Kingston, San Domingo. 







287 



288 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Selections. 

[The following extracts may be read to the class by the teacher, or by selected 
members.] 

Greenland. — Dr. Robert Brown, one of the highest authorities, 
says, — 

"Greenland is a large, wedge-shaped island, or series of islands, sur- 
rounded by the icy Polar Basin on its northern shores. . . . The whole 
of the de facto land of this great island consists, then, of a circlet of 
islets, of greater or less extent, circling round the coast, and acting as 
the shores of the interior mer de glace, — a huge inland sea of fresh- 
water ice, or glacier, which covers the whole extent of the country to 
an unknown depth. . . . These islands are bare, bleak, and more or 
less mountainous, reaching to about two thousand feet. The snow 
clears off, leaving room for vegetation to burst out during the short 
Arctic. summer. . . . These inlets between the islands constitute the 
fjords of Greenland, and are the channels through which the overflow 
of the interior ice discharges itself. It is on these islands, or out- 
skirting land, that the population of Greenland lives, and the Danish 
trading-posts are built ; all the rest of the country being an icy, landless, 
sea-like waste of glacier." — Arctic Papers. 

Alaska. — According to Whymper: "The Yukon River breaks up 
about May 19. At Nulato, which is six hundred miles above its 
mouths, it is, from bank to bank, one mile and a quarter wide. Its 
tributaries would be large rivers in Europe : and the proud boast of 
its natives is, ' We are not savages, we are Yukon Indians.' A 
steamer suitable to a shallow river could proceed eighteen hundred 
miles on the Yukon. The journey down the stream from Fort 
Yukon, at junction of Yukon and Porcupine rivers, to Nulato, six 
hundred miles, caii be made in five days and twenty hours. 

" At Fort Yukon, June 21, the night was very short, the sun being 
absent only forty-five minutes. 

"The Aleutian Islands contain many active volcanoes. Altu is 
farthest west, in longitude 171° 30' E." 



SELECTIONS 289 

"The Polar Regions of North America, lying between Alaska and 
Greenland, though included in British America, are scarcely inhab- 
ited, and have no character as political divisions. But they abound 
in all the wonders of the Arctic world; and these wonders have been 
explored and illustrated by the finest displays of enterprise, philan- 
thropy, and science, in the many expeditions searching for the North- 
west Passage and the pole. (Read Arctic explorers, particularly 
Kane, Hayes, Hall, and Schvvatka.) The following extracts picture 
the Arctic summer and the Arctic night at 78° 38' north latitude." 

" JVov. 7. — The darkness is coming on with insidious steadiness, 
and its advances can only be perceived by comparing one day with 
the fellow of some time back. We still read the thermometer at 
noonday without a light, and the black masses of the hills are plain 
for about five hours, with their glaring patches of snow ; but all the 
rest is darkness. 

"Dec. 15. — We have lost the last vestige of the midday twilight. 
We can see no print, and hardly paper; the fingers cannot be counted 
a foot from the eyes. Noonday and midnight are alike ; and, except 
a vague glimmer in the sky that seems to define the hill outlines to 
the south, we have nothing to tell us that this Arctic world of ours 
has a sun. 

" yan. 21. — First traces of returning light, the southern horizon 
having for a short time a distinct orange tinge." — Kane's Journal. 

"The bircb-bark canoe is the British-American camel. It is 
thirty or forty feet long, its sections secured together with the roots 
and filaments of the fir. If broken in, it may be patched like a coat, 
and calked with balsam as sound as ever. As it has a flat bottonv 
the shallowest river will float it. A boat which will carry four tons 
can easily be borne upon the shoulders of the crew. The uses of the 
paper-birch are almost as manifold as those of the palm-tree. The 
pliant bark, peeled off in large pieces, serves to cover the Indian's 
tent. Carefully sewed together, and ornamented with the quills of 
the porcupine, it is made into baskets, sacks, dishes, plates, and drink- 
ing-cups. The wood serves for the manufacture of oars, snow-shoes, 
and sledges; and the sweet sap in spring may be boiled to a sirup. 
It is a tree as far north as the Arctic circle : beyond, it becomes a 
shrub." 



290 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Giant Trees— The Big Trees. — There are eight groves in all, 
between the thirtieth degree and thirty-eighth degree; and between 
five thousand and seven thousand feet in elevation. 

The Calaveras Grove is the one most visited and best known. It 
is on the western slope of the Sierra, in Calaveras County. It occupies 
an area thirty-two hundred feet by seven hundred feet. There are 
about a hundred big trees here. The highest tree is fifteen feet in 
diameter, and three hundred and twenty-five feet in height. " The 
Mother of the Forest," without the bark, is twenty feet through. 
The smallest of the thirty-one measured, is only two hundred and 
thirty-one feet high. 

The Mariposa Grove is the one selected by the State for public 
use. It is near the Yosemite Valley. The trees are more numerous, 
and some say larger, in the latter grove. [Read Our New West, bv 
S. Bowles, for further information.] 

People along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts are thus spoken 
of: — 

"The oystermen and fishermen living along the lonely beaches of 
the eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia ; the surfmen and light- 
house keepers of Albemarle, Pamlico, and Core sounds in North 
Carolina; the peanut planters who inhabit the uplands that skir*. the 
network of creeks, marshes, ponds, and sounds ; the piny-woods 
people, lumbermen and turpentine distillers, on the little bluffs that 
jut into the fastnesses of the great swamps of the crooked Wac'ca- 
maw River (North and South Carolina) ; the representatives of the 
powerful rice-planting aristocracy of the Santee and Pedee rivers; 
the colored men of the beautiful sea-islands along the coast of 
Georgia; the Floridians living between the St. Mary's River and the 
Suwanee (the wild river of song) ; the islanders on the Gulf of 
Mexico, where I terminated my long journey, — all have contributed 
to make the Voyage of the Paper Canoe a success." 

"Mexico lies at the meeting-place of two zones, the temperate and 
the torrid ; and from its geographical position, combined with varying 
altitudes, possesses a greater variety of soil, surface, and vegetation, 
than any other equal extent of contiguous territory in the world. 

" Basking in the sunshine of the tropics, her head pillowed in the 



NATURAL DIVISIONS, AND CLIMATE 



291 



lap of the North, her feet resting at the gateway of the continents, 
her snowy bosom rising to the clouds, she rests serene in the majesty 
of her might. She guards vast treasures of gold and silver; emeralds 
and opals adorn her brow ; while the hem of her royal robe, dipped in 
the seas of two hemispheres, is embroidered with pearls, and the 
riches of oceans." — Ober's Travels in Mexico, p. 194. 

VII. NATURAL DIVISIONS 

[Help the children to select and arrange as below] 
1. Border Waters. 

1. Oceans . Pacific, Arctic, Atlantic. 

2. Seas . . Caribbean, Behring. 

3. Gulfs . . St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, California, Georgia. 

4. Bays . . BafHn, Hudson, Delaware, Chesapeake, Cam- 

peachy, Honduras, San Francisco. 

5. Straits . Behring, Davis, Hudson, Belle Isle, Florida Chan- 

nel, Yucatan. 

2. Projections, etc. 

1. Peninsulas . Alaska, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Florida, Vacatan, 

Lower California. 

2. Capes . . Barrow, Farewell, Race, Sable, Cod, Hatteras, 

Sable, Catoche, San Lucas, Mendocino. 

3. Islands . Arctic Archipelago, Iceland, Newfoundland, Cape 

Breton, Bermuda, West Indies, Vancouver, 
Queen Charlotte, Baranoff, Aleutian. 

4. Isthmus . Panama. 



VIII. CLIMATE 

North America extends so far north and south, it contains 
ever}" variety of cUmate in the world. For convenience in 
considering this important subject, divide the country into 
three belts which may be named, i. Northern Belt ; 2. Cen- 
tral Belt ; 3. Southern Belt. 



292 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Peculiarities. 

Northevn Beit. —Cold winds and ice abound. There is no rain 
within the area of 80° N. excepting in July and August. 

Nineteen inches of snow sometimes falls in one day. Perfect 
crystals of snow are only seen when the snow falls in a mild temper- 
ature. Snow in the Arctic regions, dry and hard ; flakes usually small, 
frequently very fine ; when driven by the wind, very hard to face. 
Esquimau dogs dislike to go against the wind. 

The glaciers move about ninety-six feet during winter. At mid- 
summer (June 21), at 80° N. at mid-day, the thermometer stood in 
the sun 57°. 

Extremes of heat at Sitka, for fortv-five years, equal 87.8° to — 4°. 
Average for the year equals 43.3°. The mercury fell below zero only 
four years out of the forty-five. The climate is warmer than Boston, 
about that of Tennessee. The great cause of this is the Japanese 
Current. Sitka has the most rain of any place in the temperate 
climate. 

The climate of Dakota is so fine, persons poisoned with malaria 
soon become perfectly well. 

Middle Beit. — The climate of San Francisco is agreeable for 
work, rather than for laziness. Sauntering or lounging is as little 
possible as it is in London. It is never too hot, never too cold, to 
work. In the summer at San Francisco it is cold after eleven o'clock 
in the day. The cold wind rushes in through the Golden Gate in a 
never-ceasing gale, hence the Golden Gate is often called the " key- 
hole." The fog so common about this Gate, retarded its discovery 
for a hundred years. 

Southern California presents a most invigorating and stimulating 
climate, as much so as Minnesota, without being so intensely cold. 
Nearly every day can be spent out of doors by invalids. Such flowers 
as the tuberose, the jessamine, the gilliflower, and heliotrope, are in 
bloom in the open garden in January. The vegetable gardens are as 
green as they are in New England in June, and the boys are seen in 
winter gathering the orange-crop. Better climate than Italy. Wintf ^_ 
resorts at Los Angeles and Santa Barbara. 



CLIMATE 293 

The dryness of the air in Minnesota permits a lower range of 
temperature without frosts, than in a moist climate. The climate 
of Denver jiermits invalids to spend several hours in the saddle 
nearly every day of the three hundred and sixty-five. 

Starting at the one hundredth meridian and going west, the climate 
becomes more and more arid. Aridity reaches maximum at the east- 
ern base of Sierra Nevada and Cascade. 

Climate of American Plateau local but uniform. Vapors excluded 
from sea by Cordilleras. A rainless atmosphere, perpetually dry, 
tonic, and transparent. Cloudless sky. No dew at night. Meat 
dries (jerking). Snow evaporates directly without melting. Moun- 
tain ranges run north and south, affording constant sunshine in the 
valleys, like Europe and Asia. Extremes of temperature for day and 
night great ; for the year small. 

On the Rocky-Mountain Plateau, six thousand feet above the sea, 
the grasses, as they stand on the soil, are cured in the sun during the 
summer. It is so cold and dry here, the grasses do not rot. The 
snows are so fine that they are blown into drifts, and a large part of 
the land is not covered. In these natural abodes of the antelope and 
buffalo, our domesticated animals live through the winter without 
man supplying them with food. 

Ocean Currents. — "Kveryhody understands that the continents 
are tally-ho coaches driving toward the sunrise, and that the wind 
blows in the faces of those who sit on the front seats of coaches. The 
wind that bore Columbus across the Atlantic, and Magellan across the 
Pacific, blows in the faces of the tally-ho coaches of the continents, 
driving out of the sunset into the sunrise. As the trade-winds in the 
tropics blow from the east to the west, at a speed often reaching 
fifteen or eighteen miles an hour, they produce a current in the 
ocean, moving in the same direction across the tropical zone. When 
that current strikes the east side of a continent it divides, and part 
goes north and part goes south. As the portion moving toward the 
pole flows away from the tropics, it of course reaches a part of the 
earth moving with less rapidity than that from which it came. Every- 
body sees that the equator must revolve with far greater rapidity than 
the Arctic circle, simply because it is larger, and must turn around in 



294 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

the same time. The motion of the earth decreases from the equator 
to the pole. As the warm current passes from the equator to the 
North Sea, in our Atlantic basin, it is constantly transferring itself to 
parallels that move less rapidly than those which it left at its last 
place of departure. 

" The water does not at once lose the speed of eastern motion it 
had nearer the equator, and so slips eastward faster than the northern 
water it meets. Thus arises a translation of a great body of water 
toward the sunrise. In this way originates the Gulf Current, the 
cause of which was a mystery for ages. So in the Pacific Ocean, 
under the sweep of trade-winds, and the influence of the difference of 
temperature between the torrid and the northern waters, there is 
produced an enormous equatorial current moving from east to west. 

"On reaching the Asiatic coast and islands, a part of this vast 
stream goes north and a part south. The portion which goes north 
is, of course, always dropping into latitudes where the motion of the 
earth" is less rapid, and therefore there is a translation of the waters 
toward North America. Thus springs up a gulf current in the 
Pacific. (Guyot: Physical Geography, p. 65.) It pours out of the 
East Indies as ours does out of the West Indies. It leaves the coast 
of China and Japan as ours does that of America. It is called the 
Japan Current, or Black Water, and farther on has the name of 
the North Pacific Current. It divides at the westernmost end of the 
Aleutian Islands. A part of it runs through Behring Straits. That 
is the reason why the ice never drifts through those straits into the 
Pacific, and why the transit of steamers between China and the United 
States is likely to be free from icebergs. The larger part of the 
current goes south of the Aleutian Archipelago, and strikes our 
continent first on the coast of Alaska. As the Gulf Current warms 
England, so does the North- Pacific Current warm Alaska and Oregon. 
But the Atlantic is more open to the Arctic Sea than the Pacific is, 
and so the latter current is less cooled by cold water from the north 
than the former." — From Mr. Joseph Cook's Mottday Lectures. 

The climate of Newfoundland is treated in a most inter- 
esting manner by Joseph Hatton, in his book on that noted 
island, p. 188. 



VEGETABLE LIFE 



295 



[Teachers should place upon the board the epitome of this subject in four parallel 
columns, as given on p. 296. The pupils copy in iheir blank-books, study, then recite 
by writing on the board or on paper.] 

IX. LIFE 

For convenience of studying the two first sub-divisions of 
life, the country may be divided, just as it was for chmate, 
into three belts. [Ask the pupils to name them.] 

I. VEGETABLE LIFE 

Northern Belt. — Mackenzie, the discoverer of the Mackenzie 
River, says that stunted shrubs of the hardiest kinds — dwarf birch, 
willows, and the like — scantily clothe the more favored spots 
along the water-courses; while elsewhere variotis lichens, — the pecul- 
iar food of the reindeer, — interspersed with stones and stagnant 
water-pools, alone characterize the dreary scene. 

"Jamaica is the black man's paradise. A bountiful nature waits 
upon him, tempting him to " sweet do nothing," by the abundance 
she yields at the slightest of solicitations. 

" The yam and sweet potato vie in the value of their product ; the 
bread-fruit drops into the upraised palm of the negro; the plaintain 
and banana hang a load of food at his open cabin window. He 
has to add a little salted fish from the shop ; and to this, nature adds 
a delightful condiment in the fruit of the ackie. If his occasional 
treat of beef is tough, he has but to rub it with leaves of the pawpaw, 
and it rivals the choicest cuts of tenderloin. 

" With leaves of hibiscus he polishes his Sunday boots, if he has 
any; the soap-berry helps him to wash his clothes; "chew-stick" 
polishes his teeth; cinchona cures his fever; and, if he has any other 
wants, the cocoanut-palm is there with its oil, fruit, fibre, etc., to 
supply them. 

" Truly a bountiful nature, and in return he is a happy child of 
nature. Care runs off his light-hearted disposition as water from a 
duck's back." — The Appalachia, Vol. III. No. 3. 

2. ANIMAL LIFE 

[The teacher can make this a very interesting exercise by assigning one charac- 
teristic animal to each child, and asking the pupils to be ready to talk for his animal 
at such a time. The teacher should be ready to supply deficiencies, by way of anec- 
dotes and stories.] 



296 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 





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298 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



3. HUMAN LIFE 

Interesting and wonderful as this topic always is in study- 
ing various countries, the subject is never more fascinating 
than in reference to the development of Human Life in 
North America. 

Iceland may boast of an authenticated history running 
back one thousand years, but how slow its progress in human 
growth and development ! The rest of North America pre- 
sents an illustration of rapid growth in population, wealth, 
and refinement, such as no other country ever enjoyed. 

Races. 

This country is the old home of one well-defined race, 
and the new home of nearly all the other races. The four 
races are named below, in the order of their number. 

I. Caucasian. — Descended from different colonies, which came 
from Europe and settled here in the seventeenth century. 
This source has been constantly increased by immigration. 
Found all over the country. Numbers sixty-six millions in U.S 

2. Ethiopian. — Descended from slaves introduced into the United 

States and Spanish America. First cargo brought over in 
1619. Found principally in southern part of United States, 
and in West Indies. Now numbers seven millions in United 
States. Rapidly increasing. 

3. American. — Called Indians, aborigines, or original inhabitants. 

America is their natural home. Columbus first introduced 
this race to the learned men of Europe in 1493. Indians then 
owned all the land. Now an Indian is not a citizen, and can- 
not vote, even if he owns property. Two-thirds of the Indians 
are settled on separate reservations, under government protec- 
tion and aid, with a view to civilization. Some of them are 



RACES 299 

wealthy: some are being educated at Hampton and other 
schools. Now found principally in British America, western 
part United States, and Mexico. They number five million 
in all, of which two hundred and fifty thousand are in the 
United States. 
4. Mongolian. — Esquimaux and Chinese. The former are superior 
to the Palagonians, living in the same latitude. They are skil- 
ful in making their dress, habitations, and tools ; but they are 
indolent, dirty, homely, and ignorant. They are widely scat- 
tered throughout Greenland and British America. As guides, 
they have been of great service to Arctic travellers. The 
Chinese have only recently come to this country from the 
vicinity of Hong Kong. They are not a fair representation of 
the Chinese people, being smaller and less intelligent than the 
more northern people. In the East they are engaged mostly in 
the laundry business ; on the Pacific shore, in various kinds of 
work. They are peaceful, industrious, and economical, but 
have aroused much hatred among their fellow-workmen. 

The American people, as a whole, are no smaller in size 
than the people of other grand divisions : they are as long- 
lived, and their beauty is as great. Dr. Brown-Sequard 
says, "The American man or beast is more enduring of 
wounds than the European." The face of the Americans is 
as intelligent as that of Teutonic peoples. Americans are 
good fighters, as was shown in the civil war. 

Population. 

No country in the world has grown, in the number of its 
inhabitants, so rapidly as North America. In order that 
this may be better understood, the population of the United 
States for the last forty years is contrasted with that of Great 
Britain. 



300 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



United States. 

1860 

31,000,000 

1870 

3 9,000,000 

1880 

5 0, 0, 

1890 

6 3, 0, 



Great Britain. 

1861 

29,000,000 

1871 

32,000,000 

1881 

3 5,000,000 

1891 

3 8, 0, 



The average increase is thus seen to be, in the United 
States, more in any one decade than it has been in Great 
Britain during the forty years. What is the reason of this ? 

The population of North America in 1890 was, — 

In Danish America, about 80,000 

In Central America " 3,000,000 

In British America " 5,000,000 

In West Indies " 5,500,000 

In Mexico " 11,000,000 

In United States " 63,000,000 

Total, about 87,580,000 

which is more than twice that of South America, and 
less than one-fourth that of Europe. What proportion is 

in the United States .'' [Mexico has the same as and 

?] Of the sixty-three millions in the United States, 

one-eighth are black, one-fourth are voters, one-sixth are 
foreign born, and one-eighth cannot write. There are 
one million more males than females in the United 
States ; but in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, 
and Rhode Island, where the denser population is found, 
the females number many thousands more than the males. 



POPULATION AND OCCUPATION 30I 

The United States has ten million families, making an 
average of five persons to a family. 

Males are in excess west of the Mississippi River, and 
north of the Ohio ; females, east and south of these rivers. 
The foreign population is mostly north of the Missouri, Ohio, 
and Potomac rivers ; the colored population, south of the 
same rivers. 

The population in the United States is the densest in 
the three states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode 
Island, where the average is two hundred to a square mile. 
In the United States as a whole, the population averages only 
twenty to a square mile ; in North America, nine to a 
square mile ; in the little island of Barbadoes, West Indies, 
the population equals one thousand persons to the square 
mile. Only one other country in the world is denser, 
namely, Malta. In Australia the population averages only 
one to a square mile. 

One-sixth of the population live below 100 feet above the sea-level. 
Two-fifths of the population live below 500 feet aboz'e the sea-level. 
Three-fourths of the population live below 1,000 feet above the sea- 
level. 

Ninety-seven per cent live below 2,000 feet above the sea-level. 

Occupation. 

[What does your geography say the occupations of North 
America are ? Name them in the order of their importance.] 

The five leading occupations, named in order of their 
importance, are the following : — 

Agriculture, manufacturing, mining, fisheries, and grazing 

f Atlantic Plain. 
Agriculture abounds in the . . . . i Central Plain. 

California Basin. 



302 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

It is carried on more or less in nearly all parts of the 
country. 

In the East, in small farms ; in the South, upon large 
plantations ; in the West, upon immense farms. 

The prairie-lands of the West were prepared by nature all 
ready for ploughing, and the immediate production of grain. 
They now fill the markets of the world with flour at the 
cheapest possible rates. Almost a revolution in the world's 
agriculture has thus been produced. 

The great difference between farm operations in the East 
and the West can only be understood by describing two 
great farms in the West. For that purpose we have selected 
one in California, and one in Dakota, — one a fruit farm ; 
the other a grain farm. 

A Noted California, Farm. — Norato ranch, owned by Mr. De 
Long, js one of the most flourishing in California. It is located 
twenty-five miles north of San Francisco, on the Northern Pacific 
Railroad. The property comprises a fertile valley, and the hills or 
momitains which surround it. The size of the ranch is sixteen thou- 
sand acres, equal to a tract of land seven or eight miles long, and two 
or three wide, or to two-thirds of an ordinary town. It takes over one 
hundred and fifty men to run such a farm, with the help of fifty horses 
and mules and several engines. From twelve hundred to fourteen 
hundred cattle are kept, and seven hundred hogs, five hundred hens, 
three hundred pigeons, and plenty of dogs to hunt the wild game, 
which, including deer, abounds in this vicinity. 

One thousand acres are devoted to raising grain, one thousand 
acres are kept for raising grass for the dairies and horfes, and two 
thousand tons of hay are annually gathered. The ten dairies yield 
from five thousand to ten thousand pounds of butter each week. 
Horse-power is used for churning. 

But this ranch is particularly famous for the quantity, quality, and 
elegance of the fruit grown thereon. There are at least forty thousand 
fruit-trees now arrowins on it. The visitor who should come to this 



NOTED FARMS 3O3 

charming spot in the early springtime, wiien tiie hills are green in 
their new coat of verdure, and this mammoth orchard is in bloom, 
would be excusable in indulging in the most extravagant expression 
of rapture i;t the beautiful sight. Almost the entire valley seems 
turned into a magnificent bank of flowers ; while the air is fairly heavy 
with their sweet perfume, reminding the delighted spectator of the 
" Vale of Cashmere," so eloquently described by Tom Moore. 

This large orchard is divided as follows: one hundred and sixty 
acres of apple-trees, fifty acres of apricots, ten acres of Bartlett 
pears, fifteen acres of peaches, besides many acres of plums, crab- 
apples, figs, cherries, nectarines, English walnuts, almonds, etc. ; 
while eighty acres are planted to vineyards of delicious grapes. 

A Bonanza Farm. — Mr. Oliver Dalrymple has been at the head 
of the largest grain-farm in this country, containing seventy-five 
thousand acres, twenty-seven thousand of which were under cultiva- 
tion in 1882. This huge farm is situated near Casselton in the eastern 
part of Dakota, in the valley of the Red River of the North. 

A farm of this size is divided into smaller farms of about six 
thousand acres each, and placed under a superintendent, with book- 
keeper, headquarter's building, a storehouse for supplies, etc. The 
six thousand acres is sub-divided into three divisions of two thousand 
acres each, under the charge of a foreman. Each of these smaller farms 
has its own set of buildings, stables, granary, boarding-house, machine 
and blacksmith shop, all connected with the superintendent's ofifice 
by telephone. Supplies, tools, and machinery are purchased at whole- 
sale, and shipped by the carload. The profits in 1882 on the twenty- 
seven thousand acres of wheat were not less than two hundred and 
sixteen thousand dollars. The name "bonanza farming" seems to 
have been well given. 

On this great farm four hundred men are employed in harvesting, 
six hundred in threshing; two hundred and fifty pairs of horses or 
mules are used, two hundred gang-ploughs, a hundred and fifteen 
self-binding reapers, and twenty steam-threshers. 

The sight of the immense wheat-fields, stretching away farther 
than the eye can reach, in one unbroken sea of golden waves, is grand 
beyond description. 

About the ist of August the harvester is heard throughout the 



304 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

length and breadth of the land. Each machine is drawn by three 
horses ; and with each gang there is a superintendent, who rides 
along on horseback, and directs the work of the drivers. The long 
procession of reaping-machines move, one after the other, like so 
many batteries of artillery ; a hundred of them cutting a swath one- 
fifth of a mile in width. There are also mounted repairers, who carry 
with them the tools for repairing any break in the machines. 

" Carleton " thus describes the scene, — 

"Just think of a sea of wheat, containing twenty square miles, — 
thirteen thousand acres, — rich, ripe, golden, the winds rippling over 
it. As far as the eye can see, there is the same russet hue. Far 
away on the horizon you behold an army sweeping along in grand 
procession. Riding on to meet it, you see a major-general on horse- 
back, -^ the superintendent ; two brigadiers on horseback, — repairers. 
No swords flash in the sunlight, but their weapons are monkey- 
wrenches and hammers. No brass band, no drum-beat, nor shrill note 
of the fife ; but the army moves on, — a solid phalanx of twenty-four 
self-binding reapers, — to the music of its own machinery. At one 
sweep, in a twinkling, a swath of a hundred and ninety-two feet has 
been cut and bound, the reapers tossing the bundles almost disdain- 
fully into the air, each binder doing the work of six men." — p. 98, 
Northern Pacific Railroad, by H. J. WiNSOR. 

Facts in Reference to Agriculture. 

There are said to be over four million farmers and 
planters in the United States of America, or nearly one- 
third of the adult males. The United States produces four- 
fifths of all the cotton raised in the world. 

The chief agricultural productions, in the order of latitude; 
beginning at the north : — 



GRAINS. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Wheat. 

Maize. 

Rice. 



OTHER PLANTS. 

Potatoes. 

Hay. 

Hemp. 

Tobacco. 

Cotton. 

Sugar. 



AGRICULTURAL COMPARISONS 305 

Comparisons. 
(1890.) 

Illinois raised more corn and oats. 
New York raised more liay and potatoes. 
California raised more barley, wine, and grapes. 
Kentucky raised the most tobacco. 
Texas raised the most cotton. 
Louisiana raised the most sugar. 
South Carolina raised the most rice. 
Texas raised the most stock. 

Notice the sections giving the above facts in the maps 
in Warren's Geography. 

[The teacher can make these more effective by showing the sections on the board 
with colored crayons.] 

There were raised in the United States in 1890, 3,439- 
172,000 pounds of cotton. If each bale weigh 450 pounds, 
how many bales were there ? Let the teacher give the 
size of a bale of cotton, and see how large a fortification 
so much cotton would make. 

Manufacturing. 

[Where carried on ?] 

In the East. 

North of the Potomac and Ohio, because of the abundant 
water-poiuer. 

The leading manufacturing States in the United States, 
and north of these two rivers, are : — 

(i) New York, (2) Pennsylvania, (3) Massachusetts, 
(4) Illinois, (5) Ohio, (6) New Jersey. 



306 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The following comprise the articles of greatest value 
manufactured in North America : — 

Flouring and grist mill products, iron and steel, clothing, 
machinery, leather, boots and shoes, woollen goods. 

In order to make all these and other articles, it requires 
in the United States alone, two hundred and fifty thou- 
sand manufacturing establishments, employing nearly three 
million hands, and making each year material worth over 

FIVE billion dollars. 

Eight Principal Manufacturing Cities. 
(1890.) 

New York. Men's clothing, women's clothing, meat-packing, liquor, 
furnishing goods, coffee and spices, foundery. 

Chicago. Meat-packing, men's clothing, foundery, lumber, furniture, 
cars. 

Philadelphia. Textiles, sugar refining, foundery, printing, meat- 
packing, iron and steel. 

Brooklyn. Sugar refining, foundery, meat-packing, coffee and spices, 
drugs. 

St. Louis. Liquors, tobacco, meat-packing, printing, lumber. 

Pittsburg. Iron and steel, glass, foundery. ■ 

Boston. Men's clothing, printing, foundery, cordage, pianos. 

Cincinnati. Clothing, liquor, foundery, carriages, boots and shoes. 
(The above cities are named in the order of the value of their 

manufactured goods. Further facts about manufactures are given 

under Productions, p. 325) 

Mining. 

[Where? What?] 
Location. — Mostly in the Highland Region. 
In the Eastern Highlands are found extensive mines of 
coal and iron. In Eastern Pennsylvania abound mines 
of hard coal (Mauch Chunk and Scran ton) \ Western Penn 
sylvania, soft coal and iron ( Pittsburg) ^ 



MINING 307 

[From what city would you ship a cargo of hard coal to 
Boston ?] 

In the Western Highlands are found numerous mines of 
silver and gold. Silver-mines are frequently seen in the 
plateau-region of the United States, as in Colorado, Nevada, 
and Arizona, and in Mexico, north of the capital. Gold is 
found all through the Western Highlands, but especially in 
the Sierra Nevada. 

Gold. — The placers which contani gold in its native state, mixed 
with sand and gravel, are the richest and most profitable sources of 
the metal. The first discoveries of a gold-mining region are naturally 
of this class, but they are rapidly exhausted. Alder Gulch, in Mon- 
tana, has produced more than $30,000,000. In Colorado, the gold is 
found with copper and iron pyrites; in Nevada, with silver. 

In California the gold is free, and at first it was separated from 
the dirt by a pan and rocker. Then a trough was used, and then a 
sluice, through which a stream of water was constantly running. In 
time came hydraulic mining, by which an enormous and powerful 
stream of water was directed, under great pressure, against a bank or 
hillside containing placer-gold. The earth thus torn down was car- 
ried by the water into the sluice, and the expense of shovelling saved. 
This method of mining destroyed the beauty of the country, and 
filled up the rivers to such an extent that the Legislature has forbid- 
den it. Now quartz-mining is the one usually employed. The rock 
is pulverized by heavy machinery, and the gold separated by the help 
of mercury or sulphurets. This method of mining requires capital 
and education, and reduces gold and silver mining to regular business 
enterprises. 

The rush, excitement, and lawlessness which followed the acci- 
dental discovery of gold in California, in 1848, by James Marshal!, 
have been repeated in the Black Hills and in Leadville. 

Silver. — Silver is as widely distributed in the Western Highlands 
as gold. Colorado, Montana, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona are at 
present the principal silver-producing States. The first named pro- 



308 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

duces about one-half. The Comstock Lode at Virginia City, Nev., 
is the richest deposit of silver in the world. In one year, ^23,000,000 
in gold and silver were taken from this lode. A tunnel twenty thou- 
sand feet long, and costing nearly $5,000,000, has been carried into 
ihe side of the mountain containing this silver deposit, in order to 
drain and ventilate the mine better, and also as an easier exit for the 
ore than the shaft. 

[See Compendium of North America, p. 154.] 

Lead and copper are found in the largest quantities in the 
valley of the upper Mississippi. Copper-mines abound in 
and about Lake Superior. [What island celebrated for 
copper-mines ?] 

Many valuable metals and minerals are found in the 
mountains of North Carolina. 

Nearly every metal of any value has been found in great 
abundance in this country except tin. [Where do we get 
our tin?] 

Grazing. 

This business is now carried on in New Mexico, Colorado, 
Texas, Kansas, and Oregon. Many of the large ranches are 
owned by great cattle-companies of the East or Europe. 
Millions of dollars from England and Scotland have been 
invested in these Western cattle- companies. Some com- 
panies own as many as a hundred thousand cattle. 

In these high latitudes, the grass cures on the stem, so 
very little feeding is necessary. Shelter is rarely provided. 
When a blizzard rages, the cattle huddle close together : 
the strongest push to the centre, and the weakest are 
crowded to the outside, where many of them freeze to 
death. 

Most of these great ranches are on Government land, and 
some of them have been " run " by New-England young 



GRAZING 309 

men. In Kansas the cattle-men arc obliged to own theii 
own land. A ranch near Emporia contains thirty thousand 
acres, well fenced with wire, and divided into convenient 
sections. The cattle are kept in "bunches" of about one 
hundred and twenty-five, for better care and health. 

When the cattle are ready for market, they are driven to 
the nearest railroad, and loaded on the cars, about eigliteen 
being put into a car. The railroads are now obliged by law 
to water them, and at long intervals to take them out, and 
rest and feed them. The trains move as much as possible 
in the night. Many of these cattle are slaughtered in 
Chicago, and the beef sent farther east in refrigerator-cars. 

From that interesting book on this subject, entided 
"Ranch Notes," by R. Aldridge, London, the following 
extract is taken : — 

" The work of taking care of cattle was not severe. We 
got up generally about sunrise, and, after a hasty breakfast, 
saddled our horses, and went round the cattle, counting 
them as we passed along. If any had wandered too far, we 
drove them back. At four p.m. we rode out again, and 
quietly worked the cattle towards home. After sundown 
we rounded them up close to the shanty, and held them 
there till they began to lie down ; after which we went in to 
supper, and ' turned in ' pretty early." 

"Sometimes a few of our cattle would stray away, and give 
us some trouble to discover them. When this happened, 
we usually found them in one of the neighboring herds, of 
which there were three within a radius of five miles. 

[In the above book will be found interesting accounts of " round-ups," " brand- 
ing," and the pleasant side of a cowboy's life. See, also, finely illustrated article in 
Century Magazine, February, 1888. J 



310 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Fishing. 

Cold-water seas are necessary to the life of the three 
leading commercial food-fishes ; viz., the cod, herring, and 
the mackerel. The Arctic Current, which washes the coast 
of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada, and a part of the 
United States, is the source of the vast fishing wealth of this 
part of the world. As the farmer depends upon the rain 
and sun for his crops, so do the fishermen depend upon this 
Arctic Current for a never-failing supply of fish. 

This Arctic, or Labrador, Current brings with it, to these 
fishing and spawning grounds, the food on which the fish 
thrive ; and the supply never fails. This food consists of a 
kind of slime, made up of minute marine life, " diatoms " 
as they are called, found most abundant in the coldest water, 
or near the neighborhood of icebergs. 

Minute creatures (crustaceans, such as the crab, cray- 
fish, shrimp, etc.) feed upon this slime, and become, in 
turn, food for the herring, which are devoured by the 
cod. 

The Great Banks, directly south of Newfoundland, form a 
regular sub-marine plateau. Here the water varies from fifty 
feet to three hundred and fifty feet. At the west end of the 
Banks the water suddenly becomes about nine thousand feet 
deep. These fishing-grounds extend two hundred miles in 
length, and about seventy in breadth. Ever since Cabot 
discovered this coast, these "cod meadows" have been 
fished by all the nations of the world, without showing any 
decrease in productiveness. 

The sections of North America engaged in the fishing 
business are named in order, — Canada, New-England States, 



FISHING 3 1 1 

South-iVtlantic States, Middle States, Pacific States and Terri- 
tories, and the Great Lakes. 

The different kinds *of fishing are, whale-fishing in Arctic 
seas ; cod, herring, and mackerel, on the Banks ; oyster- 
fishing on the coast of Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, and 
Rhode Island ; lobster-fishing along the New- England coast ; 
seal-fishing on the St. Paul Islands, Alaska ; salmon-fishing, 
Columbia River, Oregon; white-fishing in the Great Lakes. 

Canada caught, in 1S90, three million five hundred thou- 
sand dollars' worth of cod. 

The amount caught in a year in the United States, of the 
different kinds of fish, is estimated to be worth a hundred 
million dollars. To do this business requires a hundred and 
forty thousand men, and about seven thousand vessels. 

The New- England States employ forty thousand men and 
twenty-two hundred vessels, and they obtain about fifteen 
million dollars' worth of fish in a single year. The principal 
places engaged in the work in this part of the country are 
the following, named according to the value of the "catch : " 
Gloucester, New Bedford, Eastport, Boston, Provincetown, 
and Pordand. 

The South-Atlantic States employ more men, but do not 
obtain so much fish by one-third. 

Language. 

The largest proportion of the people in this country speak 
the English language. There is, however, considerable 
difference between the pronunciation and use of words in 
the various sections. 

The standard is found in Webster's, Worcester's, and 
the Century's dictionaries. 



312 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Lippincott's Gazetteer is considered tlie standard for 
geographical names. Teachers ought not to expect children 
to be very critical about the pronunciation of difficult geo- 
graphical names. 

There are many Germans in the West, and in some cities 
the German language has been taught in the public schools. 

In parts of Canada and Louisiana a kind of French pre- 
vails. In Mexico and the West Indies, Spanish is the 
prevaihng tongue. 

The ten million American Indians in North and South 
America are said to speak two thousand dialects, — as many 
dialects as thete are in the nine hundred million in Asia and 
Europe. 

Although Alaska belongs to the United States, only one- 
eighteenth of the people speak English ; and these are all 
found in three settlements. 



Manners and Customs. 

[Manners and customs must be gathered largely from travel, and books on travel. 
A pleasant way to develop this with a class is to divide the blackboard into four 
spaces. Head two adjacent columns with some nations or peoples as different as possi- 
ble, the pupils to do the same on paper; and then fill in the peculiarities as fast as 
facts are gathered. The teacher to help only when the class are exhausted. Illustra- 
tions of this method follow.] 



Indians. 

Their manners differ in different 
tribes. 

They receive such names as Big 
Crow, Whirlwind, Arrow Head, 
Laughing Water, etc. 

They have much imagination. 

They bury in trees, sitting post- 
ure. They frequently move. The 
women do the hard work. The 



Esquimaux, 

Not numerous in North 
America. 

Houses small, built of stone 
and turf. Lighted and heated by 
a lamp. 

The house is cleaned in spring 
by removing the roof, and moving 
away while the rains of summer 
wash it. 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 



313 



older and uglier the woman, 
the more work laid upon her. 

Dress in skins ; children naked. 
Indians eat meat raw; like the 
marrow. 

Very superstitious. 

Easily surprised, yet often 
stolid. Indifferent to pain. 

Yankees. 

Live in New England. 

Descended from the Puritans. 

Sharp-faced, angular, tall, and 
thin. 

Hard-working, close, economi- 
cal, self-possessed. 

Believe in the common school 
and college. Generally intelli- 
gent. Very inventive, mechanical, 
shrewd. 

They have good roads ; build 
houses ot wood, and keep them 
painted. Cities clean ; streets 
crooked. Thanksgiving turkey 
and baked beans. 

Keep Sunday. 

Small farms. 

Alaska. 

Natives are Indians and Esqui- 
maux. Indians on the Yukon 
River called Innuits. Natives on 
the western islands called Aleuts. 
Houses low, square hole in top. 
Enter on hands and knees. Clothes 
made of dressed deerskin. Travel 
with dogs and sleds. Can make 
birch canoes twelve feet long. 



He still catches the seal with 
harpoon and bladder. The women 
do most of the domestic work. 
Men and women dress very nearly 
alike. 

He calls his long boat a kyak. 

Keeps many dogs. 

Westerners. 
Descended from New England 
and Europe by immigration. 

Large, pleasant face, open, fair, 
generous. 

They are social, good-natured, 
patriotic. Boastful sometimes. 
Have large ideas. Full of busi- 
ness. Carry it on in a large way. 
Not so particular about little 
things. 

Cities laid out with wide and 
straight streets. 

" Rushing " in their business. 
Always pushing and active. 

Continental Sunday. 

Ranches. 

Large farms. 

Mexico. 
People consist of Indians, 
Creoles, Mestizo (white father and 
Indian mother). Indians of me- 
dium height, stout ; wear simple 
dress, no shoes. House, adobe ; 
mats of rushes or palm-leaves for 
seats. Food, vegetables and 
fruits. Great gamblers, and very 
lazy. 



314 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Place before their houses the 
"totem pole." 

Indians are dirty and lazy. 

Live largely on fish, berries. 

They are treacherous, untruth- 
ful. Do not farm, because there 
is no level land. 

They are not acquainted with 
domestic animals. There are only 
four horses in the country. 

Canada. 

People mostly English or 
French. 

The Canadians are fine, tall, 
handsome, powerful men. The 
girls are robust, strong, with red 
cheeks. 

All enjoy winter sports, such as 
tobogganing, skating, sleighing, 
curling, lacrosse, etc. At Montreal 
there is a week of these sports 
called the Carnival. 

Men and women dress in furs, 
and costumes of bright colors, and 
thick flannels. 



When a servant is hired, the 
rest of the family live with him. 

Assassinations are common. 
Nearly all the men and women 
smoke. 



West Indies. 

Negroes, Creoles, and Span- 
iards are the principal people. 

Labor cheap. Food cheap. 
Land and rent cheap. 

Houses small and poor. Ham- 
mocks instead of beds. Walls of 
houses gayly colored; sometimes 
made of glutinous earth, which 
hardens. 

People rise at six, take a cup 
of chocolate and fruit; breakfast 
at twelve, then the siesta. Work 
from two to four ; dinner at six. 

Sunday is z.fete day. 



[The teacher can now read with profit to the class, or have them read to him, from 
Frances Parkman's Oregon Trail, chap, xviii. p. 251, A Mountain Hunt.] 



Education. 



In considering this subject, we only need to speak of 
Canada and the United States, as Httle attention is paid to 
education in other parts of the continent. 



EDUCATION 315 

Canada. 

There is a complete system of elementary education here, 
free to all, and supported by, and under the control of, each 
separate province. Ontario is said to have the best schools. 
One-third of the teachers are men. The average attend- 
ance of the pupils is poor, and the pay of the teachers low. 

United States. 

In the United States, as in Canada, the separate States 
control the public-school systems. The United States has 
only two schools ; viz., the military academy at West Point, 
and the naval academy at Annapolis. The systems in the 
different States differ mostly in details. In every State, 
instruction is provided free of cost to all children during 
school age. The State has some general oversight ; but 
the cities and towns look after the expenses for education, 
and have control of the teachers, through superintendents 
and boards of education. 

Not only are there many primary and grammar schools, 
but the high schools and colleges are well patronized. In 
these high schools the poor boy can prepare for college, and 
in some States he can go through college without paying 
any tuition. Many States also provide text-books ana 
stationery free of cost. If a boy or girl wishes to become 
a teacher, he can attend the State or city Normal School, 
and learn the business of education. 

Numerous conventions and associations of teachers and 
educators, county institutes, and summer schools are held, 
especially during the summer vacation, for the purpose of 
improvmg the education of the youth. At these meetings 



3l6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

experienced teachers lecture and read papers on this subject. 
At one of these meetings recently held in Chicago, fifteen 
thousand teachers are said to have been present. 

The United States Commissioner of Education reports 
in the country thirteen million children enrolled in the dif- 
ferent schools, taught by three hundred and fifty thousand 
teachers, at a total expense for salaries, fuel, and official 
service, of one hundred and thirty-five million dollars. 

Some of the noted colleges are Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, 
Amherst, Williams, Brown, Bovvdoin, Columbia, Cornell, 
Johns Hopkins, Boston University, Princeton, Wesleyan 
University, University of Michigan, University of Ohio, 
University of Minnesota, Washington University, etc. Most 
of these are for men. 

Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Harvard Annex, are some of 
the colleges for women. 

[Where are these colleges situated?] 

The people of the United States are great readers of 
papers, magazines, and books. This is shown by the fact 
that about ten thousand papers are now published in this 
country, some of them printing three hundred thousand 
copies a day ; and some magazines run off a single edition 
of two hundred thousand numbers. 

The noted poets, historians, critics, and novelists of this 
country are now read the world over. Reference is made 
to such men as Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, Holmes, and 
Bryant ; Bancroft, Motley, and Prescott ; Emerson, Irving, 
Whipple, and Stedman ; Cooper, Hawthorne, Mrs. Stowe, 
and Mrs. Jackson. 

To show the interest taken here in science and invention, 
it is only necessary to mention such names as Franklin, 



RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT 317 

Agassiz, Silliman, Dana, Henry, Youmans, Young, Morse, 
Fulton, Whitney, Hoe, Bell, and Edison. 
[What ideas are suggested by these names?] 

Religion. 

In Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and some parts 
of Canada, the Catholic religion prevails. 

In the United States perfect religious toleration is allowed, 
and hence various denominations are found side by side. 

One-eighth of the population is said to be Catholic. 

The leading denominations are sometimes thus given : — ■ 



1 Methodist. 

2 Baptist. 

3 Catholic. 

4 Lutheran. 

5 Presbyterian. 

6 Christian. 



7 Congregational. 

8 Episcopal. 
15 Mormon. 

25 Universalist. 
27 Unitarian. 



There are fourteen thousand Jews, members of two hun- 
dred and two synagogues : Jewish population, two hundred 
and thirty thousand. 

There are over forty different denominations in the 
United States. (See Dr. Dorchester's Recent Statistus.) 

Go¥erniiieiit. 

Most of the different forms of government are representa- 
tive in North America (and in South America also), rather 
than hereditary. 

Danish America consists of Greenland and Iceland, both 
colonies of Denmark, and under the control of Danish 
governors. One of the governors lives in simplicity at 



31 8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Lichtenfels ; the other at Reikiavik, the principal town in 
Iceland. 

In the Dominion of Canada, the executive authority is 
vested in the Governor-General, appointed by the British 
sovereign. A Parliament, composed of a Senate and House 
of Commons, makes the laws. The senators are appointed 
instead of elected. Each province has a legislature. 

[See picture of Parliament House, Ottawa, in Appletori's 
Geography, p. 26.] 

The Government of the United States is a Federal Repub- 
lic, deriving its power from the Constitution adopted one 
hundred years ago, in 1788. 

There are, according to this document, three branches of 
the Government : the Legislative, which makes the laws j 
the judicial, which interprets the laws ; the Executive, which 
sees that the laws are obeyed. 

The laws of the country are made by Congress, which 
meets in Washington every December. The senators are 
chosen by the State legislature for a term of six years. 
There are eighty-eight senators in the Senate. The Vice- 
President of the United States is the presiding officer. 

The representatives are elected directly by the people 
for two years. Each State is entitled to one for every one 
hundred and seventy-four thousand of its inhabitants, so 
there are now three hundred and fifty-six representatives ; 
New York having thirty-four, the largest number of any 
one State. Then come in order, Pennsylvania, Illinois, 
Ohio, and Missouri. 

The President is the highest officer in the country, often 
called the "Chief Executive." He is elected every four 
years, by electors chosen by the people. He resides in the 
White House at Washington. 



GOVERNMENT 



319 



His salary is fifty thousand dollars a year. The Vice- 
President receives eight thousand dollars ; each senator 
and representative five thousand dollars each, and twenty 
per cent mileage. 

For a more extended consideration of this subject, see 
Harper's Geography, p. 35 ; Analysis of Citnl Government, 
by Tovvnsend ; Civil Government, by Martin ; by Mowry. 

Mexico is a republic of twenty-seven States, and the 
territory of Lower California. The form of government was 
modelled after that of the United States. 

Cuba is governed by a Captain-General, appointed by the 
Spanish Crown. 

Suggestive Questions. 

1. For what is North America now noted? 

2. How much has it grown during the last ten years ? 

3. What are the great wheat States ? cotton States ? lumber 
section ? 

4. What section is the oldest? the largest? the richest? the most 
populous ? 

5. From what city in North America do the largest number of 
trains daily leave ? 

6. What cities are noted cotton marts ? grain marts ? woollen 
marts ? 

7. What is the metropolis of each section of North America? 

8. From what is sugar made? starch? flour? salt? ribbons? col- 
lars ? matches ? paper ? ink ? 

9. Are the people of North America great readers? 

10. Are they lovers of music? art? athletics? money ? education ? 



CHAPTER XV 

WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA, Concludtd 



The original source of wealth is the bounty of God in nature. — 
Dr. Francis Waylaiid. 

The fertility of the soil of North America; its position, in the 
midst of the oceans, between the extremes of Europe and Asia, facil- 
itating commerce with these worlds ; the proximity of the rich tropical 
countries of Central and South America, towards which, as by a 
natural descent, it is borne by the waters of the Misissippi, and of its 
thousand tributaries' streams, — all these advantages seem to promise 
its labor and activity a prosperity without example — A Guyot. 

321 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Benjamin's Atlantic Islands. Illustrated. 

Census Reports, 1890. 

CoNKLiNG's Mexico. 

Dodge's Indian Traits. 

Froude's West Indies. 

Gooch's Mexico. 

Greely's American Weather. 

Hazard's Santo Domingo. 

King's Great South. Illustrated. 

Lamb's Homes of America. Illustrated. 

Lorne's Canadian Pictures. Illustrated. 

Manning's American Pictures. Illustrated, 

Marshall's Through America. Illustrated. 

Moore's Picturesque Washington. 

Mowry's Studies in Civil Government. 

Niagara. Illustrated. 

Nash's Oregon. 

Parkman's Oregon Trail. 

Picturesque America. Illustrated. 

Smalley's Northern Pacific. 

Smith's Mexico. 

Williams's America. Illustrated. 

Winser's Northern Pacific Railroad. 

322 



CHAPTER XV 

WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA, Concluded 

productions: in Greenland — in Iceland — in Canada — in the united states. 
— agricultural productions — manufacturing productions — mining pro- 
ductions — in mexico — in the west indies — commerce — exports — can- 
ada exports and imports — the united-states exports — the united- 
states imports — mexico — the west indies — representative cities: 
upernavik — sitka — chicago — washington — new orleans — mexico. — 
journeys — comparisons 

X. PRODUCTIONS OF NORTH AMERICA 

As North America stretches through every zone, and has, 
on account of its variety of latitude, its elevations, surround- 
ing currents, and the directions of its great mountain ranges, 
all possible varieties of climate, and as here man is found 
of every degree of civilization and savageness, so the pro- 
ductions of the country are equally varied and wonderful. 

The word " productions " is used in a broad sense, mean- 
ing to include whatever is produced by the different leading 
occupations. 

[The productions should be mentioned, as far as possible, in some order, as 
according to value or locality. These productions are easily learned by printing 
them on the progressive map in red ink (if an upper class), placing the names in 
the localities where they are most abundant. (Seep. 119.) Such maps are found in 
Warren's, Swinton's, Harper's, and McNally's geographies. 

Heath & Co. of Boston publish outline-maps of North America, United Stales, 
and sections of the same, which save much time and trouble in preparing progressive 
or production maps. 

Many facts are here given which would only be read or given orally to the class. 
A few of the bright minds will readily remember the statements. Do not reqnire 
your children to learn, or commit to tnemory, all herein stated.] 

323 



324 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Productions in Greenland. 

The people are able in the southern part of this land to 
raise, during the very short summer, a little corn, potatoes, 
and kitchen-sauce. A few berries also grow. Seal-furs, 
reindeer-skins, and whalebone and whale-products, are the 
principal productions ; also cryolite, used in making por- 
celain. 

In Iceland. 

Wool, eider-down, Iceland moss, oats, garden-vegetables, 
and fish. 

There are no trees of any size, nor any reptiles, found at 
present on the island. 

In Canada, or British America. 

Gold is found along the banks of the Frazer River, in 
Columbia. 

Lumber abounds in the great forests stretching across the 
country on both sides of the 50th parallel. 

Cereals grow on the alluvial valleys by the Red River of 
the North, and the level plains of the St. Lawrence. 

Soft coal comes from Nova Scotia. 

The fur-trade gives occupation to many men in the far 
North. 

One of the most valuable productions is fish, caught near 
the shores, and on the Grand Banks. Cod (^4,500,000 
worth in one year), herring (^2,000,000 worth yearly), 
lobster, salmon, mackerel, trout, in order of value. 

In the United States. 

In this country, the variety of climate, the richness of the 
soil, and the energies of the people, all combine to develop 
such a variety of productions, it is well to speak of them 
under different headings, according to value, as, — 



IN THE UNITED STATES 325 

X. Agricultural Productions. 

Cotton. Texas, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama. 
Wheat. North and South Dakota, California, Minne- 
sota, Ohio. 
Corn and Oats. Illinois. 
Hay and Potatoes. New York, Iowa. 
Tobacco. Kentucky, Virginia. 
Sugar. Louisiana. 
Rice. South Carolina. 
Wine. California. 
Live Stock. Texas. 
Peaches. New Jersey. 
Oranges. Florida, California. 
Peanuts. Virginia, Tennessee. 

Virginia produces 1,250,000 bushels, and Tennessee 
600,000 bushels, of peanuts in a year. The average price 
is one dollar per bushel. 

The United States raises four- fifths of all the cotton raised 
in the world. She raised, in 1890, 1,500,000,000 bushels 
of corn, nearly one-fifth as much wheat, and more than 
one-third as much oats. 

If a freight- train could carry 100,000 bushels at one time, 
how many trains would it take to move all this grain? 

2. Manufactured Products. 

These are taken from the last census report, and the States 
are arranged according to the value of the products. It 
will be readily noticed that most of the manufacturing is 
carried on north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers. 

[Require the pupils to learn only seven or eight of these, taking those of greatest 
importance or nearest your residence.] 

Boots and Shoes. Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania. 
Clothing (men's). New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Massa' 
chusetts. 



326 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Clothing (women's). New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts. 
Cotton Goods. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, 

Connecticut, Maine, Pennsylvania, New York, Georgia. 
Foundery and Machine-shop Products. New York, Pennsylvania, 

' Massachusetts, Illinois, Connecticut. 
Hardware. Connecticut. 

Jewelry. Rhode Island, New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey. 
Leather. Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, Delaware. 
Linen. New York, Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois. 
Liquors (distilled). Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio. 
Liquors (malt). New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts. 
Liquors (vinous). California, Ohio. 
Lumber (planed). New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania. 
Lumber (sawed). Michigan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, New York. 
Marble. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio. 
Mixed Textiles. Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts. 
Printing and Publishing. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, 

Illinois. 
Rubber Goods. Massachusetts. 
Salt. Michigan, New York. 
Ship-building. New York, Pennsylvania. 
Silk. New Jersey, New York, Connecticut. 
Slaughtering. New York, Illinois, Massachusetts. 
Woollen Goods. Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode 

Island. 

3. Mining Products. 

The precious metals are mined in the Pacific Highlands ; 
iron and coal, in the Atlantic Highlands, and between the 
two highlands mentioned, especially in the northern half of 
the Central Plain. 

For methods of mining, see p. 307. 

[Teachers can easily show the locality to the eye, by writing or printing these 
names upon the outline-map. Pupils learn the same by printmg them.] 

Silver. Colorado ($24,000,000), Montana ($17,000,000), Utah, Arizona. 
Gold. California ($12,000,000), Nevada ($5,000,000), Dakota, Colo- 
rado, Montana. 



MEXICO 327 

Coal (hard). Pennsylvania. 

Coal (soft). Tennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Maryland. 

Iron. Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York, Minnesota, Wisconsin. 

Copper. Michigan, Arizona, Vermont, North Carolina, Montana. 

Lead. Colorado, Missouri, Idaho, Utah. 

Quicksilver. California. 

Zinc. Missouri, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Kansas. 

Nickel. Pennsylvania, Michigan. 

Ill Mexico 

the people live at all elevations, from the level of the sea to 
that of the plains of Orizalxi, from seven thousand to eight 
thousand feet. This fact, and the latitude of the country, 
give it a great variety of climate, and a remarkable range 
of productions. 

In a trip from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, the 
traveller would begin his journey in the hot lands, where 
grow such tropical fruits as bananas, oranges, and mangoes 
and cocoa-palms wave their long leaves in the wind. 

Rising higher, he would soon enter the Temperate Region, 
where, at the height of three or four thousand feet, sugar- 
cane, rice, tobacco, plaintain, and coffee are grown with 
ease and abundance. Corn, apples, and peaches abound in 
his belt. 

In the cold country, or Plains of Mexico, wheat, barley, 
■.nd aloes are raised. As we approach the capital we find 
the cactus, argave, and maguey, from which pulque, the 
famous Mexican drink, is obtained. Cotton, wheat, and 
the argave grow abundantly about the capital. Grains 
flourish best in the southern and eastern part of the state. 
Sugar is produced principally about Vera Cruz ; various 
kinds of hemp, in Yucatan. Spanish pepper is largely 
raised and used. 



328 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The noted silver-mines are situated in the central part, 
from fifty to a hundred miles north of the City of Mexico, 
and in Sonoro, a section in the extreme north-west. 

The productions, in order of value, are as follows : corn, 
silver,' wheat, sugar, frijoles (beans), gold, cotton, barley, 
pepper, woods, coffee, rice, hides, vanilla, tobacco, rubber, 
orchil, copper, sulphur, honey, horsehair, sarsaparilla. 

In the West Indies. 

The climate is favorable for every variety of tropical 
growth ; the soil rich ; and man alone is lazy, and inefficient, 
and easily satisfied. Little exertion is necessary to keep 
from starving to death, and hence little enterprise is shown 
in any of these beautiful islands. 

Few minerals are found : and the productions are almost 
entirely vegetable, such as sugar, molasses, tobacco, cigars, 
coffee ; tropical fruits, such as cocoanuts, bananas, pine- 
apples, oranges, and breadfruit; mahogany (Bahamas), 
indigo, logwood (Hayti) ; a few spices, sponges, honey. 

Sixteen million cigars are sometimes made in Havana in 
one year. Three million are sent to United States, and the 
same number to England. Two million go to Germany, and 
half as many to France. 

The tobacco raised in a single year is valued at twenty 
million dollars. The tobacco-plant is shaded by the banana- 
plant, and the coffee-tree by the cocoa-palm. 

One-fifth of the sugar consumed in the world is raised in 
Cuba, but only one-tenth of the land is cultivated. 

[These productions can be dictated to the class, put on 
the board, or, better, lists made by the pupils, corrected 
in the classroom, and then printed on the progressive map as 

I Hetnp should come next. 



COMMt:RCE 329 

given in the Progressive Map, Fig. i 7. Tlie productions have 
been given according to vaUie, but it is important that a few 
comparisons be made to impress these facts upon the mem- 
ory of the children. This can be easily done by putting on 
the board a few circles divided into different sized sectors, 
such as follow.] 

XI. COMMERCE 

The great commercial grand divisions of the world are 
Europe and North America. 

If the important countries are arranged according to the 
amount of shipping, both sailing and steam, the countries 
appear in the following order : — 

Great Britain. 

United States. 
Norway. 

Germany. 

France. 

Italy. 

[The subject of commerce has been so fully illustrated, and so much space already 
given to the commerce of the United States, the reader is referred for interesting facts 
to chaps, xvi. and xvii.] 

Exports of North America. 

The exports are principally from agriculture. We export 
considerable manufactured goods, but we import still more. 
Most articles imported into the United States pay high 
duties, excepting coffee, tea, fruit, hides, India-rubber, rags, 
raw silk, and raw sugar. 

The exports and imports are here given, in order of their 
value, according to the latest United-States Government 
statistics. This order will vary slightly from year to year, 
but the last mentioned will never become the first mentioned 



33^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

without many years intervening. Such changes have, how- 
ever, taken place during a period of twenty-five years in 
India and Mexico. 

Canada Exports 

From Montreal, to England and United States, lumber, grain, and 

furs. 
From Quebec, to England and United States, lumber. 
From Halifax and St. John's, to England and United States, yfj'^. 
From Halifax and British Columbia, to United States, soft coal. 

Canada Imports 

From England, cotton and woollen goods. 
From the United States, y?i?;^r and coal. 

The United States Exports 

Cotton (raw) to England, Germany, France, Russia, and Spain, from 

New Orleans, New York, Savannah, Charleston, Norfolk, 

Baltimore, and Boston. 
Gold and silver to England, Hong Kong, Italy, Canada, and France, 

from New York and San Francisco. 
(Two-thirds of this is carried in American steamers, and the rest in 
foreign steamers.) 
Breadstuffs to England, France, Belgium, Canada, Portugal, and 

Cuba, from Chicago via New York, San Francisco, Boston, 

Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Baltimore. 
Petroleum to Germany, England, East Indies, Belgium, Japan, and 

Australia, from New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Perth Amboy. 
Pork to England, Germany, Belgium, and Canada, from Chicago and 

Cincinnati, via New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. 
Lard to England, Germany, France, Cuba, Belgium, and Canada, 

from New York and Boston. 
Animals to England and Mexico from New York, Boston, Corpus 

Christi, and Saluria (Tex.). 
Tobacco to England, Germany, Italy, and France, from New York, 

Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, and Galveston. 



UNITED-STATES EXPORTS 33 1 

Timber to England, Canada, Australia, Cuba, from New York, Puget 

Sound, Minnesota (Minn.), Pensacola (Fla.), and Brunswick (Ga.). 
Agricultural Implements to Australia, England, Argentine Republic, 

Canada, and France, from New York and Boston. 
Cars to Mexico, Canada, and United States of Colombia, from New 

York. 
Manufactures of iron and steel to Mexico, Australia, Canada, Cuba, 

England, and United States of Colombia, from New York, 

Philadelphia, and Boston. 
Leather to England and Germany, from New York and Boston. 
Beef to England, from New York and Boston. 

The value of the domestic merchandise exported in one year 
amounts to nearly one billion dollars, one-half of which goes to Great 
Britain. New-York City exports more than one-half of this amount. 

[The teacher should not expect the child to learn all the following statistics ; but 
rather let the teacher write on the board selections therefrom, omitting some facts, 
such as the right order of value, the locality, etc., and allow the children to try to fill 
in the missing fact, restore the order, etc. The teacher, for instance, places on the board 
the facts in reference to the United States importing sugar, and asks the class to trace 
the probable route by which the cargoes were brought. Or the teacher asks, " By 
what route is cotton carried from the United States to England? " " Under what flag 
r/ould agricultural implements be exported from New York to Australia? "] 

The United States Imports 

Sugar from Cuba, other parts of West Indies, Spanish possessions, 
Guiana, and Brazil, through New York, Boston, Philadelphia, 
Portland, and San Francisco. 

Textiles (cotton and woollen), from Great Britain, France, Germany, 
through New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. 

Coffee from Brazil, Venezuela, Central America, Java, Hayti, Colom- 
bia, Mexico, and West Indies. 

Silk (manufactured) from France, Great Britain, and Belgium, through 
New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. 

Silk (raw) from Japan, China, and France, through San Francisco 
and New York. 

Hides from England, Argentine Republic, Uruguay, East Indies, 
Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, and France, through New York, Bos- 
ton, and San Francisco. 



332 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Tea from China, Japan, through New York, San Francisco. 

India Rubber from Brazil, England, Central America, Colombia, and 

Southern Africa, through New York and Boston. 
Linen (manufactured) from Great Britain and Germany, through New 

York and Boston. 
Tobacco from Cuba and Netherlands, through New York and Key 

West. 
Tin from England, through New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and 

San Francisco. 
Spices from East Indies, England, and Africa, through New York, 

Boston, and San Francisco. 
Wine from France, England, and Netherlands, through New York 

and Boston. 
Rice from England, China, and East Indies, through San Francisco 

and New York. 
Salt from England, West Indies, and Canada, through New York and 

Boston. 

Mexico Exports 

From Vera Cruz and other seaports, to England, silver, mahogany. 
From Vera Cruz, to United States, coffee, goat-skins, dry hides, India 

rubber, and vanilla-beans . 
From Paso del Norte, to United States, silver, goat-skins, and animals. 
From Merida, Yucatan, to United States, hennequen fibre. 

Other exports to United States are vanilla, tobacco, sugar, honey, 
beans, orchil, copper, horsehair, sarsaparilla. 

Mexico Imports 

From the United States and England, textiles, liquors, machinery, 
glass, and iron wares. 

The West Indies Export 

From Havana, to United States and England, sugar, cigars, molasses, 

cocoa, logwood, fruit, sponges. 
From Matanzas, Cardenas, and Cienfugos, Cuba, to United States, 

sugar, molasses, and honey. 
P'rom Kingston (Jamaica) and Cape Haytien (Hayti), to United States, 

coffee and logwood. 



CITIES IN NORTH AMERICA ;;^^^ 



XII. A FEW BEPRESENTATITE CITIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

[Let the children prepare, in upper class, a little description of the characteristic 
places in the country, which description may be considered as a composition. Below 
we give a few illustrative accounts, to show our meaning. Facts briefly stated should 
here be required, rather than fine writing.] 

Upemavik, Greenland. — Latitude, 72° N. Population, in 1870, 
was 88. 

Name means " Place of Spring." 

Most northern place in North America. 

Situated on an island, facing the sea ; exposed to icy winds and 
fogs. 

It has a very desolate and dreary appearance. Large heaps of 
snow near by, even in July. 

A little vegetation grows in the gardens near the houses. There 
is a small church, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet, also a comfortable 
house for the missionary. In winter the sun for seventy-nine days is 
below the horizon. For thirty-nine days it is very dark. 

Sitka, Alaska. — Latitude, 57° N. Population, in 1890, 1188, 

Situated on Baranoff Islands. It has a small harbor. Mountains 
rise near by. 

The place has a custom-house, a hospital, saw-mills, also a Greco- 
Russian church. 

A steamboat plies every two weeks between this place and 
Portland, Ore. 

The business is the catching and curing of salmon. 

It is garrisoned by a hundred and eighty United-States troops. 
More rain falls here than in any other place outside of the tropics. 

Warmer than Boston on account of the Japan Current. 

Chicago. — Population in 1890, 1,000,000. Almost as large as 
Philadelphia, twice as large as St. Louis. Twice the population of 
Boston. 

Situated on the Great Lakes, thus connecting with the St. Lawrence 
River and Erie Canal, and near the Mississippi River. Largest com- 
mercial city, for these reasons, in the interior. Greatest railroad 
centre in this country, if not in the world. Twenty-two railroads 
enter the city. 



334 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Greatest grain and lumber market. Immense "cattle-yards," 
where beeves, hogs, and lambs are slaughtered in the most scientific 
manner. Much of this meat is sent in refrigerator-cars to New York, 
Philadelphia, Boston, and other places. 

Excellent water-supply brought by a tunnel several miles long, from 
the bottom of Lake Michigan. 

Chicago is a commercial emporium with the North-West. 

It has wide and straight streets, miles and miles of business blocks ; 
many buildings from eleven to fourteen stories high. A large number 
of elevators are seen in the city. There are several large depots, a 
fine post-ofifice and custom-house, court-house, board of trade, im- 
mense hotels, many churches, schools, etc. 

There is a system of public parks connected, with boulevards, which 
will be magnificent when completed. Lincoln Park already shows 
some fine efforts in English landscape-gardening. 

Chicago has had an unparalleled growth. In 1837 it contained 
four thousand people; in 1850, thirty thousand; in i860, a hundred 
and twelve thousand ; 1870, three hundred thousand. 

The next year (1871) it had a fire, which proved to be the greatest 
in modern times. Two thousand acres on both sides of the river, 
along the lake, were burned over, destroying over seventeen thousand 
buildings, rendering homeless a hundred thousand people. In three 
years this was all rebuilt. 

Chicago has now the largest rolling-mill in the world, the largest 
steel-mill, and makes nearly all of its own boots and shoes. 



Boston. 
Two hundred and fifty years old. 
450,000. 
Twice as slow. 
Situated on salt water. 
Seaport. 

Narrow but clean streets. 
Crooked streets. 
Not level. 

Culture and business. 
Charitable. 

Boasts of its ancestors and learn^ 
ing. 



Comparisons. 

Chicago. 



Fifty years old. 
1,000,000. 
Twice as large. 
On fresh water. 
Inland port. 
Wide but dirty streets. 
Straight streets. 
Perfectly level. 
Business, business. 
Generous. 

Boasts of its growth and enter- 
prise. 



WASHINGTON AND NEW ORLEANS 335 

Washington, B.C. — Population (1890), 230,000. Half as large as 
Baltimore ; about the size of Buffalo. 

On the left bank of the Potomac, one hundred miles from its 
mouth. 

The "City of Magnificent Distances." Finest and healthiest of 
American cities ; resembles Paris ; streets very wide ; many parks 
and open squares. Washington is the capital of the United States, 
and contains the Capitol, standing on grounds containing fifty-two 
acres. The Capitol is built of white marble and freestone : it consists 
of a central building surmounted by a dome two hundred and eighty- 
five feet high, and two wings. The north wing is for the Senate, and 
the south wing for the House of Representatives, —the largest legis- 
lative room in the world, seating eight hundred members: the gal 
leries will seat fifteen hundred spectators. The Supreme Court has 
rooms in the central building. 

The Treasury building contains a hundred and ninety-five rooms, 
the marble room being the finest. This building cost the Government 
six million dollars. 

Other large and costly buildings are the State, Navy, and War 
Departments, the Interior Department, Post-Ofiice Department, 
Smithsonian Institute, Naval Observatory, Soldiers' Home, etc. 

The President's residence is called the White House, and is 
surrounded by grounds containing twenty acres. 

The Washington Monument is an obelisk of marble five hundred 
and fifty-five feet high, and fifty-five feet square at the base. 

Washington society is cosmopolitan. 

Congress meets the first Monday in December. 

There is no commerce, and little business except making laws, in 
this city. 

New Orleans. — Population, 242,000. Twice as large as Provi- 
dence ; two-thirds as large as St. Louis or Boston ; about the size of 
San Francisco. 

Situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, seven hundred 
miles south of St. Louis, one hundred miles above delta of river. 

Called " Crescent City " because of the shape in the bend of the 
river. It has grown so lately, the city is now in the form of the 
letter S. 



336 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The city is several feet below the river. The levee to protect the 
city from the river extends two hundred miles above the city, and 
fifty miles below the city. It is fifteen feet wide on top, and it makes 
a good promenade. 

There are several fine buildings, such as the Custom House, built 
of Quincy granite, — the largest edifice in the country, except the 
Capitol at Washington ; also City Hall, Branch Mint, State House 
(once the famous St. Louis Hotel), St. Patrick's Hall, St. Charles 
Hotel, etc. 

Canal is the main business-street. There is some difficulty in 
draining the city. 

In summer afflicted with yellow-fever. Twenty-eight epidemics 
from 1797 to 1889; three epidemics from 1858 to 1879. 

Commerce greatly increased since the jetties have been finished 
at the mouth of the river. 

Exports cotton and sugar. One-third of all the cotton exported 
from United States. Sugar is here piled up in sheds like coal. 

Between Christmas and Lent the greatest carnival in the United 
States is held. This takes place every year on Mardi Gras, or Shrove 
Tuesday. Then the people dress to resemble animals, goblins, and 
such creatures, and march through the streets with music and torches, 
setting off fire-works as they proceed. 

Mexico — Population (1890), 330,000. Larger than New Orleans. 

Finest and most brilliant city in Spanish America. The observer 
is far more impressed by the natural scenery surrounding the city, 
than by its buildings and monuments 

Lies in the centre of the Anahuac tableland, midway between two 
oceans, in a zone of perennial spring ; 7,465 feet above the sea-level. 

It is a handsome city, tolerably clean ; forms a perfect square ; 
streets spacious, perfectly straight, and level ; finest open place in 
America. 

A splendid sight presented by the Plaza, one thousand feet square. 
Wonderful cathedral, overlaid with gold, silver, and precious stones. 
Arcades where all kinds of business are carried on. 

Five miles to the south-west is situated the castle of Chapultepec, 
standing on a hill over two hundred feet high. Maximilian made it 
his home. 



CITIES AND JOURNEYS 337 

Alameda is a public park containing forty acres. 

The Tivoli Gardens are very beautiful ; the tables for eating are 
arranged in the trees, in boxes, etc. The gentry breakfast about 
12 M. in this garden. The floating gardens are not common now. 

Principal Cities of the United States. 

The important cities of the United States, and also of 
North America, are nearly all commercial cities situated on 
the water. In the frontispiece the water-situation of many 
of these cities is shown, and one city contrasted with another. 
A city situated on an island Uke New York, or on a peninsula 
like Boston, well surrounded with water, having plenty of 
wharves, has a great advantage over Chicago and Philadel- 
phia, which possess much less water-communication. [Are 
most of the large cities of the country on the north or the 
south, the west or the east, of the rivers and bodies of water 
nearest them?] 

XIII. JOURNEYS 

[Assign as a home lesson proposed journeys across the country from different 
points, such as are suggested below.] 

1. Down the Mississippi. (Consult Four Alonths in a 

Sneak- Box, by Bishop.) 

2. From Boston to Chicago, via Philadelphia and Pittsburg. 

3. From Chicago to San Francisco, via Union Pacific. 

(Consult Fifth Avenue to Alaska, by Pierrepoint.) 

4. From St. Louis to San Francisco, via Southern Pacific. 

(Consult Codman's Round Trip.') 

5. From New York to Mexico in eight days. (Consult 

Ober's Mexico.^ 

6. From Boston to Smith Sound. (Consult Hayes's Open 

Polar Sea.') 

7. From east to west on the fortieth parallel. (Consult 

the imagination and memory.) 

8. From north to south on the ninety-seventh meridian. 



338 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

From the Dearborn School, Boston, to Chicago. 

A happy party of boys and girls from the graduating class, and 
their two teachers, boarded the Western Express in the Boston 
and Albany Depot, June 3, for a trip to Chicago. 

I was selected secretary of this travelling club of ramblers, and 
now present my official report of our proceedings. We had, of 
course, two special Pullman drawing-room cars provided for our 
accommodation. Leaving Boston at 8.30, we were, in about six 
hours, crossing the Hudson and rolling into Albany, the capital of 
New York. There was no time to stop and examine the costly State 
House, decorated by our neighbor, the great painter and artist ; for 
the train in a, few minutes left for the West, over the New York 
Central Railroad. 

We passed too rapidly for careful description, through the charm- 
ing Mohawk Valley, in sight of the Erie Canal, and along this rich 
agricultural portion of the Empire State. Niagara Falls was 
reached about 12 P.M., and we retired at the Cataract House before 
seeing, but not before hearing, the great cascade. In the morning we 
caught, from the piazza of this hotel, our first glimpse of the moving 
water. What exclamations of wonder escaped from the lips of the 
sightseers ! 

Most of this day was spent in viewing the falls from different 
points. It is difficult to realize what a mass of water is constantly 
descending the one hundred and sixty feet of the fall, till the observer 
stands at the foot of the moving avalanche and looks upward. Our 
party were especially delighted with the views from Goat Island. I 
noticed that the riwtble of the falls is not a harsh, unpleasant sound, 
but rather sweet and musical, although loud enough to be heard 
thirty miles away. 

As the ride onward to Chicago was passed by us in a state of 
unconsciousness in a sleeper, I refrain from comment. 

The great business-life of Chicago is easily seen in the vicinity of 
the Palmer House where we stopped, in such streets as Clark, Dear- 
born, State, and Monroe. Boston knows little of such rush and push. 

In our rambles about the city, several of us visited the stockyards, 
which are covered with sheds and peas, capable of keeping two 



JOURNEY TO CHICAGO 339 

hundred and forty thousand head of cattle at once. Near by are many 
slaughtering and packing establishments, and a hundred miles of 
railroad-tracks. On many of the streets cable-cars are used, run in 
trains of three cars. This system secures greater speed, and is espe- 
cially adapted to such straight and long streets. One morning the 
party rode in barouches through Michigan Avenue, one of the most 
complete boulezards connecting the different parks. This grand 
avenue is two hundred and fifty feet wide, and lined on each side 
with beautifully arranged plots of flowers, graceful elms, and superb 
residences, owned and occupied by the city princes of wealth. 

We then inspected several new buildings, such as the Board of 
Trade, where the grain-speculators are said to meet and "gamble;" 
the County Court House and City Hall, towering in majestic propor- 
tions, and reminding one of the photographs of buildings in Paris. 
We also rode by the Post-Office and Custom House, and the Pullman 
Building, the last noted for being only fourteen stories high. The 
upper story is a kitchen ; the thirteenth story, a restaurant. 

In the afternoon we rode out to Lincoln Park, on the north side, — 
the oldest, as well as the most beautiful, park in the city. It covers 
two hundred and fifty acres, has an infinite variety of drives and 
elevations, from which grand views of the lake are obtained, in some 
respects reminding the writer of Franklin Park at home; and yet 
a few years ago this spot was a flat, unattractive prairie. In the 
zoological garden were to be seen some unusually fine specimens of 
the grizzly bear, buffaloes, prairie-wolf, and California seal. In the 
centre of the park two or three acres are laid out in an immense 
flower-garden, such as to make our boasted efforts in that line sink 
into insignificance. 

XIV. COMPARISONS 

[Write on the board, for comparison by the class for review, such topics as the 
following.] 

Compare the Yoseniite Valley with the Wisconsin Dalles. 
The Colorado Caiion and the Connecticut Valley. 
Mount St. Elias and Mount Washington. 
The Merrimac River and the Potomac. 



340 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



The fiftieth parallel and the thirty-fifth parallel. 

The cHmate of New York and Southern Cahfornia. 

Compare Georgia and Nevada. 

The cultivation of rice and maize. 

Newfoundland and Cuba. 

The fruits of Massachusetts and those of Florida, 

The Indian and the Negro. 



[Each pupil at the board, or on paper, is directed by the teacher to] 
Contrast the 
New World with the Old World. 



Two grand divisions. 

One-half as large. 

Long and narrow. 

Mountains extending north and 

south. 
Plains equal to two-thirds of the 

surface. 
Plateaus cover one-third of the 

surface. 
Greater ainount of moisture. 
Vegetable life abundant. 
100,000,000 inhabitants. 
Republics. 
Growing and improving. 



Four grand divisions. 

Twice as large. 

Length and breadth nearly equal. 

Mountains extending east and 
west. 

Plains equal one-third of the sur- 
face. 

Plateaus cover two-thirds of the 
surface. 

Less amount of moisture. 

Animal life abundant. 

1,300,000,000 inhabitants. 

Monarchies. 



Standing still. 
Comparison, 

Compare your own country with the one to the north, or the one to 
the south. 

Compare your own State with the largest State adjacent. 

Compare your own city, or town, with the one east or west. 

Compare the schools in your town with those in some other town. 

Compare the roads, or any means of travel in your town, with those 
in some distant town or city. 



CHAPTER XVI 
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 



One country exchanges its surplus produce for the stcrphis 
produce, respectively, of other countries. — Yeats. 



3*1 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



American Almanac (annual, March). 
Bevan's Ship-Building and Railways. 
Barker's Trade and Finance (annual). 
Chisholm's Commercial Geography, 1890. 
Commercial Relations 1884-85, parts i and 2. 
Great Industries of Great Britain. 
Roman's Cyclopedia of Commerce. 
■Kale's Condition of Nations. 
Maleaux' Wonderland of Work. 
Martin's Statesman's Year-Book. 
McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce. 
Mulhall's Dictionary of Statistics. 
Resources of Modern Countries. 
Scribner's Magazine for 1888. 
Spon's Encyclopedia of Manufacturing. 
Statistics of Commerce, 1880. 
Tilden's Commercial Geography, 1892. 
Yeats's Commerce, Recent and Existing, iJ 
Yeats's Growth of Commerce, x888. 
Yeats's Raw Materials of Commerce, 1888. 
Webster's Trade of the World. 



342 



CHAPTER XVI 
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 

HISTORY AND GROWTH OF COMMERCE — KINDS OF COMMERCE — IMPORTANT COM- 
MERCIAL COUNTRIES — HOW CARRIED ON — NOTED TRADE ROUTES — GREAT 
RAILROAD ROUTES — TRUNK LINES — COSTLY BRIDGES — BOSTON TO MEXICO — 
IMPORTANT WATER ROUTES — ARTIFICIAL WATER ROUTES — TELEGRAPH AND 
TELEPHONE — COMMERCIAL CENTRES — " THE THREES OF COMMERCE" — COM- 
MERCIAL TRIP ROUND THE WORLD 

IN the Saxon age, neither commerce nor productive indus- 
try existed. Each family was-self-contained, hke a savage 
Indian. There was then no division of labor, no interchange 
of movable property in the modern sense, no communication 
worthy of the name. 

Commerce was once confined to the Mediterranean Sea, 
but even then it was active ; and Venice grew rich in its 
service, till Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good 
Hope, and turned the trade to England. 

The discovery of America opened new possibilities for 
commercial activity, but the invention of the steam-engine 
created new developments in both manufacturing and com- 
merce. Commerce then becomes indirectly a mighty agent 
of production, since it stimulates the industry of every 
country. Commerce, on the other hand, grows with the 
growth of productive industry. 

" Every new raw material brought within the range of manufac- 
ture, every increase in the yield of the soil from improved husbandry, 
every appliance to make labor-saving machinery more effective, every 

343 



344 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

new process of service to lessen the cost of production, every wise 
legislative act that clears the path of labor and interchange, every 
geographical discovery and settlement, every new market in distant 
ports, and every advance of the laborer in the exercise of the indus- 
trial virtues, swells, by so much, the dimensions of the national 
commerce." 

The interchange of the products of one country with 
another, has had great influence on the human race. The 
potato was carried to Europe ; maize, to Asia. 

The search for gold, ivory, and diamonds, has opened 
up new parts of the world, and secured their early settle- 
ment. The search for platina disclosed the most guarded 
recesses of the Cordilleras and the Ural Mountains. The 
need of copper led to our acquaintance with the Great Lakes. 
The demand for whale-oil and rich furs has opened to all 
people the indispensable riches of the polar world. 

The remarkable growth of commerce and wealth during 
the last fifty years is vividly shown by such a table as the 
following, taken from English Parliamentary Reports : — 

Per-capita Consumption of Different Articles imported largely by the 

People of Great Britain. 

Articles. 1840. 1886. 

Bacon and hams lbs. o.oi ii-95 

Butter " 1.05 7.17 

Cheese " 0.92 5.14 

Currants and Raisins " 1.45 4.02 

Rice " 0.90 10.75 

Wheat and wheat flour . . . . " 42.47 185.76 

Sugar (raw) " 15.20 47.21 

Sugar (refined) " none 18.75 

Tea " 1.22 4.87 

Eggs no. 3.63 28.12 

Tobacco lbs. 0.86 1.42 

Coffee " 1.08 0.86 



COMMERCIAL COUNTRIES 345 

A full year's supply of meat and bread for an adult person 
in the United States can now be transported from the places 
where most abundant, a thousand miles, to where most 
needed, for the cost of a mechanic's single day's wages. 

Commerce is the exchange of productions, on a large 
scale, between different places. It is readily divided into 
two kinds ; viz., Domestic and Foreign. 

The principal articles exchanged are grouped under the 
following three heads: l. Food; 2. Clothing; 3. Metals. Or, by 
another grouping : l. Raw Material ; 2. Manufactured Goods. 

COMMERCIAL COUNTRIES AND CENTRES 

Commerce is greatly facilitated by the contour of the 
country. A grand division with many projections and 
indentations, like Europe, is likely to have good harbors ; 
and it is easy for ships to go from one point to another, as 
many of the water-routes are within sight of land. South 
America and Africa are illustrations of the opposite con- 
dition, and their history has little to do with commerce. 
The three navigable rivers in South America make up for 
the lack of projections. 

The great commercial countries to-day are, according to 
value, Great Britain, United States, France, Gertnany, 
Belgium, Holland, Russia, Austria. 

The commerce of the British Empire, including India, 
Canada, and Australia, is greater than the united trade of 
France, Germany, and the United States. The commerce 
of England to-day is about nine times as great as it was in 
i8oo. The commerce of France in the same time has 
increased still more rapidly. Great Britain has the most 
trade with India, of all her possessions ; next comes Australia, 



346 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

and then Canada. The United States imports only about 
half as much from Great Britain now as in 1870, but she 
exports to Great Britain nearly twice as much now as in 
1870. 
The noted commmercial centres of the world are, for 

General Commerce. 

Liverpool and London In England. 

New York, Boston, and Philadelphia . , . United States. 

Hamburg and Bremen Germany. 

Antwerp Belgium. 

Marseilles and Havre France. 

Alexandria Africa. 

Calcutta . . Asia. 

Melbourne Australia. 

Rio Janeiro South America. 

Liverpool and London are at the end of two great 
commercial water-routes. [Ask the children to mention 
the cities at the other end. Boston and New York are at 
the end of a great commercial land-route. What city is 
at the other end?] 

" England is anchored in the side of Europe, and right in the heart 
of the modern world. It has the best commercial position on the 
whole planet. 

" Every natural deficiency is compensated by wonderful energy. 
The country, though foggy and rainy, has furnished the world with 
astronomical observations. Its short rivers do not afford water- 
power, but the land shakes under the thunder of the mills. With no 
gold mines, there is more gold in England than in all other countries. 
Too far north for the vine, the wines of all countries are in its docks. 
'No fruit ripens in England but a baked apple,' says a French 
critic, but oranges and pine-apples are cheaper there than in the 
Mediterranean." — Ralph Waldo Emerson. 



ENGLAND'S COMMERCE 347 

" A power," says Webster, " that has dotted over the surface of 
the globe with her possessions and military posts, whose morning 
drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with the hours, 
circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain of the 
martial airs of England." 

" Between two seas, France has the next best position for com- 
merce. Humboldt pronounced its climate the finest in the world. 
But its rare resources are in the character of its people. The French 
seldom emigrate. They have peculiar skill in providing for luxury 
abroad, and in practising economy at home. The rich of every land 
are buyers of their high-priced products. Great Britain and the 
United States alone pay yearly to France J|5400,ooo,ooo, mostly for 
luxuries of food and dress." 

England has over twenty-two thousand merchant vessels, 
manned by over two hundred thousand seamen. Her 
commerce is protected by the largest navy in the world. 
She has established fortified naval depots for coal and 
provisions along all the great routes of commerce. For 
example, in the Mediterranean are Gibraltar, Malta, and 
Cyprus ; on the South-African route, St. Helena, Cape 
Town, and Mauritius ; on the East-India route, Aden, 
Bombay, Calcutta, Singapore, and Hong Kong ; Melbourne, 
etc., in Australia ; Jamaica and Balize in the West Indies ; 
Halifax and Quebec in Canada. The sun never sets on her 

flag- 

The United States, in contrast, has, at present, very few 
vessels engaged in foreign commerce. [Why ?] 

The United States produces nearly four-fifths of the cot- 
ton crop of the world. More is produced now in the South 
by free labor, than was formerly done under slave labor. 
India cannot compete with the United States in raising 
cotton. 



34S METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

India now raises more tea than Japan. It all goes to 
England. China raises three-fourths of all the tea. The 
United States imports its tea from Shanghai, Amoy, and 
Chefoo, Kanagowa and Hiogo ; its fire-crackers from Can- 
ton ; its rattans from Singapore and Batavia ; its bananas ' 
from Kingston and Truxillo ; its cocoanuts from Trinidad 
and Porto Rico ; its raisins from Malaga, Barcelona, and 
Denia. 

HOW CARRIED ON 

Commerce is carried on in a variety of ways. 

ON LAND 
(In Savage and Senii-eivilized Conntries.) 

1. 'Qy porters, as the negro carriers in Africa. 

2. By dogs, as the dog- trains in Greenland and Siberia. 

3. By llamas, as in the Andes of South America. 

4. By camels (caravans), as across the deserts of Africa 
and Asia. 

5. By horses (sleighing on snow or ice), as in Russia. 

(In Civilized Countries.) 

6. By railroads. 

ON WATER 

1. By boats on canals. 

2. By sailing-ships. 

3. By steamers. 

Steamers are now rapidly taking the place of sailing- 
/essels. 

' An average bunch of bananas in Kingston, Jamaica, is worth forty cents; the 
same in Boston is worth two dollars and fifty cents. 



GREAT TRADE ROUTES 349 

NOTED TRADE ROUTES' 

OVERLAND 

Through Siberia. 

From Pekin to Kiachta, Irkutsk, Tomsk, Nijni-Novgorod, to 
Moscow. 

Across Sahara. 

1. From Morocco and Fez to Timbuctoo. 

2. From Tunis to Sackatoo. 

3. From Tripoli to Mourzouk and Kouka. 

4. From the lower cataract of the Nile to Central Africa. 

GREAT RAILROAD ROUTES 

EUROPE 

1. Liverpool to London. 

2. Glasgow to London. 

3. Edinburgh to London. 

4. London to Dover. 

5. London to New Haven. 

6. Lisbon to Reggio, via Madrid and Marseilles. 

7. Brest to Otranto, via Paris and Turin. 

8. Brest to Bucharest, via Paris and Vienna. 

9. Brest to Berlin, Moscow, and to Orenburg, Ural River, three 
thousand two hundred and sixty-six miles. Before many years this 
road will be completed to China. 

10. Cadiz to St. Petersburg, three thousand miles. 

These lines are crossed by six north to south Hnes. 

AFRICA 

Alexandria to Cairo and Suez. 

ASIA 

Bombay to Madras. 

Bombay to Calcutta. 

' In all cases the route is to be traced on the maps: afterwards \t should be drawn 
on the large blackboard outline map by the pupils. 



35<^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

NORTH AMERICA 

The grand trunk lines in this country run mostly from the 
east to the west, passing through the valleys and passes of 
the intersecting mountains. 

[Why do they run in this direction ?] 

British America. 

Canadian Pacific. — From Quebec, ;://« Montreal, the St. Law- 
rence Valley, north of Lake Superior, Winnipeg, the valleys of the 
Saskatchewan and Fraser rivers, over the Rocky Mountains, to 
Victoria. 

In tlie United States.' 

Eastern Half. 

The most important routes between the Atlantic coast 
and the Mississippi Valley are the following : — 

1. The Grand Trunk Line, from Portland, Me., through the White 
Mountains to Montreal, the St. Lawrence Valley, Canada, north of 
Lakes Ontario and Erie, to Chicago. 

2. The Boston and Albany, and the Hoosac Timnel routes, across 
Massachusetts by parallel routes to Albany, through the Mohawk 
Valley, and the centre of New-York State, to Buffalo, Chicago, and 
St. Louis. 

3. The New York and Erie Road, from New-York City via the 
Delaware, Susquehanna, and Chemung valleys, to Buffalo, Cleveland, 
and Chicago. 

4. The Pennsylvania Central, from New York to Philadelphia, via 
the Susquehanna and Juniata valleys, to Pittsburg; thence to 
Chicago or St. Louis. 

5. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, from Baltimore to Washington, 
through the Potomac Valley to Wheeling and Chicago, or to Cincin- 
nati and St. Louis. 

6. Norfolk and Western Railroad, from Norfolk or Richmond, 

* Trace these routes on the commercial map. Draw on blackboard. 



TRUNK LINES 35 I 

through Lynchburg and the valley of the Tennessee, to Chattanooga 
and Memphis; or from Chattanooga by way of Birmingham, Ala., to 
New Orleans. 

7. Central Georgia Railroad, from Savannah and Charleston, by 
way of Macon, Montgomery, and Jackson, to Vicksburg or New 
Orleans. 

These great trunk lines are connected with one anotlier 
by numerous h'nes running north and south,' so that all 
places of any importance can be reached now by railroad. 

Western Half. 

The Mississippi Valley is connected with the Pacific coast 
by four trunk lines : — 

1. The Northern Pacific, from St. Paul and Duluth, by the valleys 
of the Missouri, Clarke's Fork, Columbia River, to Portland and 
Olympia on Puget Sound. 

2. Union Pacific, " Burlington Route " from Chicago, and west via 
the Platte Valley, or St. Louis, by Kansas City and Denver, Cheyenne, 
Ogden, to San Francisco. 

3. The Santa Fe Route from Chicago through Kansas City, by the 
Arkansas Valley, Pueblo, Santa Fe, to San Francisco. 

4. Southern Pacific, from New Orleans, by Austin, El Paso, and 
Gila valleys, to Los Angeles and San Francisco. 

Mexico. 

1. The Central Mexican, from El Paso "c>ia Chihuahua to City of 
Mexico. 

2. Mexicaji Raihmy, from Vera Cruz to Mexico. 

3. Afexican National, from Laredo on the Rio Grande, by Monterey 
and Satillo, to City of Mexico. Narrow Gauge, two thousand miles 
long, three hundred miles not finished (1886). 

The trade of the sparse population west of the looth 
meridian has not yet required so many cross-roads from 
north to south as in the eastern part of the country. 

' From the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, to the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. 



352 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Narrow-gauge roads are now being built in the Pacific 
Highlands region. The United States has more miles of 
railroad than any other country in the world ; the amount 
being now about a hundred and fifty thousand miles, 
eight thousand of which were built and completed in 1886 ; 
one million persons are employed to run them. 

This would equal three hundred thousand miles of rails, 
— enough in length to make twelve steel girdles for the 
earth's circumference, or to reach thousands of miles 
beyond the moon. 

Europe, has about a hundred and ten thousand miles of 
railroad, and two hundred thousand miles of telegraph, 
including the lines through Siberia. 

The Isthmus of Panama is crossed by a railroad, which is 
one of the most costly routes known to modern civilization. 
It is said that a hundred thousand people died from the 
unhealthiness of the climate while it was being con- 
structed. 

Some of the noted iron bridges for railroads are the 
Britannia over Menai Straits, built by Stephenson in 1850, 
1,511 feet long; the Victoria over the St. Lawrence, built 
by Stephenson in 1859, 7,200 feet long; the St. Louis over 
the Mississippi, built by Eads in 1874-, 1,524 feet long; 
the Wuzerabad over the Punjaub, 9,300 feet long, finished 
in 1875 ; the Cantilever over the Niagara below the Falls, 
built by the Michigan Central Railroad, 910 feet; the 
Brooklyn over the Hudson, 3,455 feet long, 210 feet high, 
built by Roebling, aided by his wife (begun in 1870, finished 
in 1883). Poughkeepsie Bridge is to be 2,694 feet long. 

The St.- Gothard railway starts from the Lake of Lucerne 
in Switzerland, passes through the nine-mile mountain tunnel, 



ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY 



353 



three thousand feet above the sea-level, and descends to 
Lugano on Lake Maggiore, Italy, a distance of a hundred 
miles, which is pursued in spirals and curves along the 
mountain-sides, and through tunnels and galleries of greater 
or less extent. Besides the great tunnel, with its length of 
nine and a quarter miles, there are fifty-two smaller ones, 
with an aggregate length of fifteen miles. The nature of 
the valley requires that several of these tunnels should be 
constructed in a spiral, instead of making, as is usual, long 
curves. In the narrow valley of the Reuss the road is 
doubled on itself, like a winding-stair ; and the difference in 
grade is surmounted within a tunnel. In one place the 
railroad rises thus over four hundred and fifty feet by means 
of three tunnels. Between Airolo and Lugano on the 
Italian side of the Alps, there are four other spiral tunnels, 
each of which is about a mile in length. The cost of this 
railroad was $47,600,000, contributed by the Italian and 
Swiss governments. The railroad bridges of the United 
States would reach from New York to Liverpool.' 

Some well-managed railroads are the Austrian Govern- 
ment road from Trieste, over the Austrian Alps, to Vienna; 
the London and North Western road in England ; the 
Boston and Albany Railroad in Massachusetts ; and the 
Pennsylvania Railroad, from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. 

Some railroads which reach high elevations are the 
Union Pacific, United States ; the railroad from Callao to 
Oroya in South America. This road crosses the Andes 
through a tunnel which is three miles above the sea, and 
it passes a mountain gorge on the highest bridge in the 
world. 

■ For pictures of noted railroad bridges, see Scribner's Magazine for July, 1888. 



354 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Specimen Time-Table. 

Boston to City of Mexico. 

Leave Boston about 6 p.m. . . Arrive New York 7 a.m., 233 miles. 
Leave New York (Pennsylvania 

Railroad) 8 a.m . . . Arrive St. Louis 7.30 p.m. second 

day, 1,298 miles. 
Leave St. Louis 9 p.m. . . Arrive Kansas City 9 a.m. third 

day, 1,610 miles. 
Leave Kansas City at 10 a.m. . Arrive El Paso 4.30 p.m. fifth 

day, 2,456 miles. 
Leave El Paso 6.30 p.m. . . Arrive City of Mexico 7.30 a.m. 
. , eighth day, 3,883 miles. 

IMPORTANT WATER-ROUTES 

Natural Routes for Foreign Commerce. 

I. Liverpool to New York; to Quebec; to Bombay via Suez 
Canal, or round Cape of Good Hope ; to Point de Golle, Madras, 
and Calcutta; to Singapore; to Hong Kong; to Melbourne; to 
Aspinwall ; to Para ; to Rio Janeiro. 

2. JVew York, to Liverpool ; to Havana ; to New Orleans ; to 
Aspinwall ; to Para ; to Rio Janeiro ; to Valparaiso ; to San Francisco ; 
to Cape Town. 

[The route across the Atlantic, from New York to Liver- 
pool, is one of the most dangerous in the world. Why? 
Give two or more reasons.] 

3. San Francisco to Panama ; to Callao ; to Yokohama ; to Hong 
Kong; to Honolulu; to Auckland and Melbourne; to Portland, 
Ore. ; to Sitka. 

4. Marseilles or Havre to ports in the Mediterranean; through 
the Suez Canal to Bombay, etc. ; to Buenos Ayres ; to Aspinwall ; 
to Martinique; to New York. 

5. The rivers Mersey, Thames, Danube, Elbe, and Weser. 



WATER-ROUTES IN COMMERCE 



Natural Water-Routes for Domestic Commerce. 



.355 



1. From the vicinity of Chicago, by the Mississippi River and its 
branches, to New Orleans. 

2. From the Great Lakes, by the St. Lawrence River, to the 
ocean. 

3. Down the Hudson River to New York. 

There are over fifty thousand miles of navigable rivers in 
North America, besides the Great Lakes with their thou- 
sands of miles of fresh-water shores. 

Artificial Water-Routes for Domestic Commerce. 
United-States and Canadian Canals. 

1. The Erie Canal connects the Hudson River and Lake Erie at 
Buffalo, 352 miles. It is used largely for transporting grain to the 
sea-board. 

2. Three canals connect Lake Erie with the Ohio River, and are 
used for general merchandise. 

3. Numerous canals are used in the valleys of Pennsylvania, and 
the Potomac Valley in Maryland, for transporting coal and iron ore 
from the mountains where they have been mined, to the cities where 
they are used. 

4. The Welland Canal, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, 27 miles, 
to avoid the Niagara River and Falls. 

5. Several canals around rapids in the St. Lawrence River, near 
Montreal, such as the Lachine and Beauharnois canals. 

6. The Rideau Canal, from Ottawa to Kingston, Lake Ontario. 

7. A canal around the rapids in the St. Mary's River, between 
Lake Superior and Lake Huron. 

There are about four thousand miles of canal in the 
Middle and Central States. 



3S6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Other Countries. 

Suez Canal, 92 miles; finished 1869; cost $85,000,000. 

Canals are numerous in England, France, Germany, Russia, India, 
Holland, and Austria. 

There are many in China; the most important is the Imperial 
Canal, from Pekin to Shanghai, — the longest in the world, 2,100 
miles, and the most used. The Vishney, in Russia, connects St. 
Petersburg with the Caspian Sea, 1,434 miles. 

Proposed Artificial Routes. 

1. Panama Canal. 

2. Cape-Cod Canal. 

These are now being constructed. [When finished, how 
will they affect trade ?] 

The assistance of the postal service, and lines of telegraph 
and telephone, is employed to direct all this commerce. 

Over one hundred and fifty thousand miles of telegraph 
are now daily used in the United States, and nearly three 
hundred thousand miles in Europe. 

Five ocean cables are in use now between the United 
States and Europe, and the traffic over them amounts to as 
much as fifty thousand words in a day. There is a line 
between England and India, China and Japan, France and 
West Indies, East Indies and Australia, Lisbon and Brazil. 

The facts of commerce may be presented in a variety 
of ways. Perhaps the most interesting are the three fol- 
lowing : — 

1. Emphasize the Great Commercial Centres of Trade. 

2. Take a commercial trip round the world, starting near 
home, and gathering up the exports. 



CENTRES FOR RAW MATERIALS 357 

3. Make out a list of the three leading exports from the 
three greatest exporting towns in each continent. This 
makes a pretty review lesson. 

The following were 

SPECIAL COMMERCIAL CENTRES IN 1888 
[ The largest centres are generally mentioned fir stl\ 

RAW MATERIALS 

Caoutchouc. Para, Tamatav. 

Coffee. Rio Janeiro, Maracaibo, Santos, Batavia (Java), Vera 

Cruz, Padang. 
Coal. Philadelphia, Newcastle, Halifax. 
Copper. I>ake Superior, Cornwall, Valparaiso, Sydney. 
Cotton. New Orleans, Mobile, Galveston, Savannah, Charleston, 

Calcutta, Alexandria. 
Fruits. Havana, Kingston, Malaga, Madeira Islands, Smyrna, Jack- 
sonville, Azores. 
Furs. London, Yakutsk, Victoria, Okhotsk, St. Petersburg, Sitka. 
Hides. Montevideo, Rio Janeiro, Cape Town, Vera Cruz. 
Gold. Melbourne, San Francisco, Russia, Auckland. 
Iron. Liverpool, Philadelphia, Pittsburg. 
Petroleum. Philadelphia, New York, Pittsburg, Baltimore. 
Rice. Charleston, Calcutta, Rangoon, Yokohama, Batavia. 
Salt. Saginaw, Syracuse, Turk's Island, Lisbon, Cracow (Poland). 
.Silk. Canton, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Marseilles, Genoa, 

Leghorn. 
Silver. San Francisco, Acapulco (Mexico), Valparaiso. 
Spices. Batavia, Amboyna, Hong Kong, Singapore, Cayenne, Rio 

Janeiro. 
.Sugar. Havana, Mauritius, Rio Janeiro, New Orleans, Batavia, 

Manilla, Honolulu. 
Sulphur. Messina (Sicily). 

Tea. Canton, Hankow, Foochow, Shanghai, Calcutta, Yokohama. 
Tin. Cornwall (England), Singapore. 
Tobacco. Virginia, Baltimore, Havana, Constantinople, New York, 

Manilla. 



358 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Wine. Marseilles, Bordeaux, Bremen, Oporto, Madeira Islands, 

Melbourne, Cape Town, Lisbon, San Francisco. 
Wheat. Chicago, New York, San Francisco, Dantzic, Odessa. 
Wool. Melbourne, San Francisco, Cape Town, Auckland, Valparaiso. 

OTHER ARTICLES 

Art. Paris, Rome, London. 

Fancy Goods. Paris, England, Philadelphia, New York, Boston. 

Iron. England; Pittsburg, Penn. 

Machinery. England. 

Ships. Glasgow. 

MANUFACTURED GOODS -CLOTHING 

Cotton Goods. In England : Manchester, Glasgow, Preston ; in 
United States : Lowell, Manchester, Lawrence, Fall River, New 
Bedford, Atlanta ; Germany, Russia, France. 

Linen Goods. Belfast, Bremen, Hamburg. 

Silk Goods. Lyons, Avignon, Tours (France), Amsterdam, China, 
Japan. 

Woollen Goods. Leeds, Bradford, Bremen, Hamburg. 

In the United States. 

The New England States supply such manufactures as cotton cloth, 

boots, shoes, and " notions." 
The Middle States supply similar manufactures, and coal, iron, and 

petroleum. 
The Central States supply grain and meat, and manufactures. 
The North-Western States supply grain, lumber, copper, and iron ore. 
The Soutkerjt States supply cotton, rice, and sugar, coal and iron. 
The Rocky Mountain States and Territories supply gold and silver. 
California and Oregon supply gold, wheat, and wool. 

Commercial Trii) round the World for Exports. 

[ The class will enjoy this all the more, if the teacher suggest that they 
imagine thetnselves on board of a great steamer like a " Cunarder".] 

Boston. Grain, cotton manufactures, bacon and hams, lard, leather, 
tobacco. 



A COMMERCIAL TRIP 359 

New York. Breadstuffs, petroleum, pork, and lard. 

Philadelphia Wheat and flour, cotton manufactures, bacon and 

hams, petroleum. 
Charleston. Sea-Island cotton. 
New Orleans. Cotton, breadstuffs, oilcake. 
Vera Cruz. Silver, hennequen (or sisal hemp), coffee. 
Havana. Sugar, cigars, molasses. 
Para. India-rubber, Peruvian-bark. 
Rio Janeiro. Coffee, sugar, diamonds, hides, cotton. 
Buenos Ayres. Animal products, grain, wool. 
Valparaiso. Wheat, copper, wool, nitrate, sugar. 
San Francisco Wheat, precious metals, cotton cloth, gunpowder, 

wine. 
Yokohama. Silk, tea, rice, cuttle-fish, copper, camphor. 
Hong Kong. Tea, silk, sugar, straw-braid, hides, cotton, fire-crackers. 
Singapore. Spices, sugar, tin, indigo, and rattan. 
Batavia. Spices, tin. 

Melbourne. Gold, wool, live-stock, tin, sugar, coal. 
Calcutta. Grain, cotton, seeds, opium, jute, tea, rice, wool, indigo. 
Odessa. Grain, wool, hemp. 

Trieste. Sugar, wood, grain, clockwork, woollen manufactures. 
Marseilles. Wine, silk, woollen manufactures. 
Malaga. Fruits, wine, and raisins. 

Havre. Articles of taste and fashion made in Paris ; brandy. 
Amsterdam. Drugs, butter, iron, sugar. 
Riga. Flax, hemp, timber, cattle products, furs. 
Liverpool. Cotton manufactures, woollen manufactures, iron, and 

machinery. 

THE THREES OF CO.MMERCEi 

First Set of Threes. 

[T/ie largest in value mentioned firstl\ 

I. Europe. 

a. Liverpool exports: i. Cotton manufactures. 2. Woollen 

manufactures. 3. Iron and machinery. 

b. Marseilles exports : i. Woollen manufactures. 2. Silk. 3. Wine. 

c. Hamburg exports : i. Sugar. 2. Woollen manufactures. 3. 

Silk manufactures. 

■ The exporting town represents the country in which it is situated. 



360 methods and aids in geography 

2. North America. 

a. New-York exports: i. Breadstuffs. 2. Petroleum. 3. Pork. 

and lard. 
■b. New-Orleans tx^oxis-.Y. Cotton. 2. Breadstuffs. 3. Oilcake. 
c. San Francisco exports : i. Wheat. 2. Precious metals. 3. 

Cotton cloth. 

3. Asia. 

a. Jlong-J^ong ex^ oris : i. Silk. 2. Tea. 3. Chinese wares. 

b. Yokohama exports : i. Silk. 2. Tea. 3. Coal. 

c. Calcutta exports : i. Cotton. 2. Rice. 3. Opium. 

Second Set of Threes. 

1. South America. 

a. Rio Janeiro ^x.\>o\i'S,: i. Coffee. 2. Sugar. 3. Diamonds. 

b. Buenos 'Ayres exports: i. Animal products. 2. Wool. 3. 

Grain. 

c. Jquiqiie QXT^oris: i. Nitrate. 2. Copper. 3. Silver. 

2. Australia. 

d. Melbourne exports : i. Wool. 2. Gold. 3. Live-stock. 

b. Sydney ex'^orts: i. Wool. 2. Tin. 3. Silver. 

c. Auckland QXY>ox\.s : I. Wool. 2. Grain. 3. Frozen meat. 

3. Africa. 

a. Alexand>'ia exports: i. Cotton. 2. Cotton-seed. 3. Beans. 

b. Cape-Town exports: i. Diamonds. 2. Wool. 3. Ostrich 

feathers. 

c. Algiers exports: i. Grain. 2. Wine. 3. Cattle. 

A Prosperous Country. 

(1892.) 
The general condition of our country is one of great prosperity. 
The blessing of God has rested upon our fields and upon our people. 
The annual value of our foreign commerce has increased more than 
$400,000,000 over the average for the preceding ten years, and more 
than $210,000,000 over 1890, the last year unaffected by the new tariff. 
Our exports in 1892 exceeded those of 1890 by more than $172,- 
000,000, and the annual average for ten years by $265,000,000. Our 
exports of breadstuffs increased over those of 1890 more than $144,- 
000,000, of provisions over $4,000,000, and of manufactures, over 
$8,000,000. The merchandise balance of trade in our favor in 1892 
was $202,944,342. No other nation can match the commercial progress 
which those figures disclose. 



CHAPTER XVII 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY -PEODUCTIONS, EXPORTS, 
AND IMPORTS 



Those who command the sea, command the trade of the world; 
those who command the trade of the world, command the 7-iches of 
the world, and thus command the world itself . — Raleigh. 

361 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Brown's Manual of Commerce. 

Chisholm's Handbook of Commercial Geography. 

Martin's Statesman's Year-Book. 

Parliament's Annual Trade and Shipping Statement. 

Spofford's American Almanac. (Published every March.) 

The Statesman's Year-Book. (Published every February.) 

United-States Consular Reports. 

Yeats's Recent and Existing Commerce. 

362 



CHAPTER XVII 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY - PRODUCTIONS, EXPORTS, 
AND IMPORTS 

FACTS — TRADITIONARY GEOGRAPHY — MODERN COMMERCE — SPENDS MONEY — 
GOODS CARRIED GREAT DISTANCES — DIAMONDS — OSTRICH -FEATHERS — HOW TO 
TEACH COMMERCE — THE WORLD'S PRODUCTIONS — LEADING PRODUCTIONS OF 
LEADING COUNTRIES — LEADING EXPORTS OF LEADING COUNTRIES — LEADING 
IMPORTS OF LEADING COUNTRIES — EXPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN — IMPORTS OF 
GREAT BRITAIN 

THE facts which follow, in reference to productions, 
exports, and imports, have been collected with the 
greatest care and labor, and are presented with confidence, 
coming, as most of them do, from the United-States Con- 
sular Reports, and from the Trade, Navigation, and Ship- 
ping Annual Statements presented to Parliament, England, 
in 1886. 

The statements herein made differ widely from some of 
our geographical text-books, because the text- books are 
giving traditionary geography, or teach commerce from a 
different standpoint than the real busmess of the present 
day. In all cases, in this book, the most important articles, 
according to value, are mentioned, rather than the peculiar 
articles of the country. 

For example : some of the best geographies teach that 
the exports of Mexico are " gold, silver, cattle, hides, and 
cochineal." The recent consular reports show that the 
exports from Mexico are, according to value, "silver, henne- 

363 



364 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

quen, woods, coffee, hides and skins, and vanilla." The 
geography referred to has only two right out of six. Very 
httle . gold is exported from Mexico at the present time ; 
and over twenty articles are mentioned in the consular 
report before cochineal is reached, by value of exports. 

The exports of Egpyt and India, as usually given, are 
not much nearer the facts in consular reports. 

If the faith of teacher and pupil in text-books is some- 
what shaken by the facts given below, taken from the highest 
and most recent authorities, no great harm will be done. 
The author asks that teacher and pupil may together search 
for the truth, and correct all errors stated in the following 
pages, remembering that " To err is human." 

Facts about Modern Conmierce. 

The foreign commerce of the United States amounts to 
about $1,600,000,000 annually. Almost one-half of this 
commerce is with Great Britain, one-tenth with France, 
and about the same with Germany and with the West Indies. 

Fifty-five per cent, or over one-half of our foreign com- 
merce, passes through the port of New York. 

[Why is New York favorably situated to manage this 
Commerce ?] 

Seventy-seven per cent of these exports are derived from 
agriculture, such as cotton and grain. Fourteen per cent 
come from manufactures, and seven per cent from muiing. 

The value of the manufactured exports in 1880 waia more 
than twice as much as it was in i860. 

The most important imports of the United States are the 
following, named in order of value : — 

Sugar and molasses, wool and woollen manufactures, silk 



MODERN COMMERCE 365 

and silk manufactures ; chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medi- 
cines ; coffee, iron and steel, cotton goods. 

Two-thirds of the exports from the United States are now 
carried in steam-vessels. 

Four-fifths of the grain and flour from the West to the 
Atlantic seaboard is transported by rail, and only one-fifth 
by the Lakes, Erie Canal, and Hudson River. Much of the 
Southern cotton is now moved by rail. 

Great Britain has the most commerce with her various 
colonies ; then come, in order, the United States, France, 
Germany, Holland, Russia, and Belgium. 

The United States imports the most from Great Britain ; 
and then, in order, come Cuba, France, Germany, and 
Brazil. 

The United States exports the most to Great Britain ; then 
follow, in order, Germany, France, Cuba, and Brazil. One- 
fifth of the commerce of France is with the United States. 

Modern commerce and travel have built many great iron 
bridges ; steamers, costing millions of dollars apiece, which 
can cross the Atlantic Ocean in six days ; laid thousands of 
miles of cable ; tunnelled twice the Alps, once the Pyrenees ; 
crossed the Isthmus of Suez with railroad and canal, and 
made the Red Sea again a place of busy life, opening old 
harbors choked for a thousand years with mud and sand. 

The number of ships passing through the Suez Canal in 
1886 was over three thousand, mostly English steamers. 
The canal now pays dividends of seven per cent on total 
cost. The canal shortens the voyage between England and 
the East by one-third ; that is, it enables two vessels to do 
the work that would require three by the Cape of Good 
Hope. 



366 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Modern commerce has greatly cheapened the cost of 
food ; so that flour can be made in the West (Minneapolis), 
and sold in Boston at an advance per barrel of only seventy- 
five cents. 

In 1 8 15, in London, no one believed wheat would ever 
reach only eighty shillings a quarter; but wheat, in 1886, 
was raised in Minnesota, and carried to London, and sold 
for thirty shillings a quarter, at a fair profit. New Zealand 
now sends in one ship twenty thousand frozen carcasses 
of sheep to feed the millions of hungry mouths in London. 
Australia sends millions of tins of presei-ved fresh meats ; 
and America sends cargoes of cattle, alive or dead. 

A merchant in Liverpool can send his order by cablegram 
to Chicago, — four thousand miles away, — for a thousand 
barrels of flour, and in twenty-one days receive the same 
at his store. 

In many a peaceful village nestling beneath the glaciers 
of the Alps, myriads of hands are at work on shoes for 
British feet, or clocks for American housekeepers, compen- 
sated for the distance from the market by the cheap transit. 

England pays out annually two hundred million dollars 
for foreign produce, which Professor Tanner and others 
'think she could raise at home. 

Eggs from Copenhagen and Rotterdam are brought to 
New- York City, much to the disgust of the " Ohio Butter 
and Egg Packers' Association." 

The Express Business. 

Express companies in this country are now doing an 
immense business. These companies and the post-office 
department carry, at cheap rates, great quantities of goods, 



DIAMONDS AND OSTRICH-FEATHERS 367 

not merely short, but long, distances. Some of the well- 
known express companies are Adams, United States, 
American, and National. 

Diamonds 

Are now exported from Port Elizabeth and Cape Town, 
from Rio Janeiro and Sydney. The United States imports 
mostly rough stones from Cape Town. The Brazilian 
fields are now almost abandoned. The new Rush mine of 
Kimberly, near the Vaal River, South Africa, has fur- 
nished so many diamonds during the last five years that 
the price is now only one-fourth of what it formerly was. 
Diamonds are irregular in shape, and unattractive in appear- 
ance, when first found. The cutting and polishing of the 
stones, is done principally at Amsterdam and Antwerp. 

Ostrich-Feathers 

Are brought to the United States from Port Elizabeth 
and Cape Town, Africa. Flocks of ostriches are found 
all over Cape Colony, and the Cape farmers buy and sell 
them as they do sheep ; fence the flocks in, grow crops 
for them, study their habits, and cut their feathers, as 
matters of business. The value of the feathers exported in 
1882 was over five miUion dollars. The farmers became 
infatuated with the business when the feathers sold readily 
for two hundred and fifty dollars per pound, and they gave 
up wool-growing as too slow a way of making money. The 
number of ostriches has recently become so great, that the 
markets are overstocked with feathers, and the price has 
gone down to fifty dollars per pound ; so the farmers in 
some places are turning their birds loose upon the plains. 



368 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Directions to Teachers. — Do not ask the children to learn this 
mass of facts, but to use such of these facts as you recommend for 
reference and composition. Select some of the most important, 
write them on the board, and let the children compare one country 
with another in reference to amount and kind of leading productions 
or exports. 

Ask on the board such questions as these : — 

What countries probably send hides to England.'' ivory? apples? 
meat? cotton? silk? rice? timber? 

England, France, and Germany export woollen goods : what 
countries import these same goods ? 

If a ship from the United States sail for Liverpool, what will it 
carry out, and what bring back ? 

What articles were probably carried in the following steamers? 

Steamers Sailing from New York. 

City of Richmond For Liverpool, March 25. 

Glasgow, March 26. 
Bremen, March 28. 
Hamburg, March 29. 
Rotterdam, March 31. 
Havre, March 31. 
Antwerp, March 31. 
Bordeaux, April 3. 
Copenhagen, April 7. 
Amsterdam, April 7. 



Ethiopia 

Saale 

Wieland . 

Rotterdam 

La Bretagne . 

Zeeland . 

Chateau Margaux 

Geiser 

Zaandam 



The daily imports and exports of Boston may be brought to the 
■> attention of the class by some selected member, who will perhaps 
read from the morning " Advertiser " extracts from the " Trade and 
Commerce " reports, as follows: — 

Imports at Boston. 

Cardenas. Bark Tremont, 775 hhds. 68 tierces molasses, W. H. Emerson. 

Cebu. Bark Bowjnan B. Low, 31,579 bags sugar. Standard Sugar Refinery; 
4,100 bales hemp order. 

RoSARlO. Bark Satmiel B. Hale, 10,000 dry ox and cow hides, 35 bales goat 
skins, 15 do. hide cuttings. Baring Bros. & Co; 35 bales wool, 40 do. goat skins, 
30 do. hair, 4 pkgs. stag skins, N. W. Rice & Co.; 8 cases effects, John Duane; 
I do. do., A. & S. E. Spring; 20 lining hides order. 



EXPORTS AND PRODUCTIONS 369 



Foreign Exports, 

London, Eng. Steamer Borderer (eld. March 24); 12 crates i box organs; 
I blower; 20 cases 1 bdl. organ materials; 247 tierces tallow oil; 5 baskets gutta- 
percha; 204 bales cotton waste; 5,600 bdls. 80 cases shooks; 211 head cattle; 
I engine; i steam-pump; 16 cases rubber boots; 50 cases chair stock; 40 logs; 46 
cases paper; 22 crates 24 cases fish glue; 54 pkgs. pails; i case hardware; 29 do. 
woodenware; 3 do. drilling; 7,646 pieces staves; 480 pieces walnut lumber; 4 cases 
machinery; i pole; i case rakes; 9 cases scythes; i do. snaths; 2 do. agricultural 
implements; i do. samples; i do. washboards; i box whetstones; i case oars; i box 
sewer-pipe; i bbl. i box machinery; 2 cases brushes; 600 casks cider; 240 bags 
asbestos; 11,564 bush, wheat; 575 tierces lard; 15 do. tobacco; 52,005 sacks flour. 
50 boxes bacon ; 200 do. dyestuffs; 40 cases medicines; 4 do. soap; 26 bags 81 bales 
6 cases leather. 

Glasgow, Scot. Steamer Siberian (eld. March 22); 28,561 sacks flour; 
21,411 bush, wheat; 330 pkgs. tubes; 13 do. oil-stoves; 3 pkgs. castings; 27,150 lbs. 
cheese; 1,300 cases canned meats; 1,589 bbls. apples; 1,910 pkgs. butter tubs; 45 
pkgs. hams; 10 cases 35 bdls. handles; 170 tierces lard; 65 boxes plough castings; 
9 cases hammer head axes; 400 head cattle; 10 bbls. ink; i do. oysters; 14 cases 
organs; i organ top; 4 bales i case 24 bdls. leather; i box books; 3,600 pieces 
staves; 340 empty bbls. and casks; 49 bbls. pegs. 

Ask such questions as these : — 

What is the difference between a barque and a schooner.' 

Where is Rosario ? 

What is the most valuable article exported to London "i 

Do we export much machinery to England ? Why not? 

Find four important exports from the above list. 

Who are Baring Bros. & Co. .' 

What is meant by "4 do. soap".'' 

INTERESTING STATISTICS. 

EDUCATION. 

Number of Pupils in United States, 18S9. 
Primary Schools 7,875,000; about 57^ 



Grammar Schools 3'934'259; 

Private Schools 1,122,000; 

High Schools 482,000; 

Academies 186,461 ; 

Normal Schools 27,569; 

Universities and Colleges 99,285; 

Total 13,726,574 



5% 
H 
3% 



37° 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Nutnber of Teachers. 

Male 124,929 

Female 22'j,Tp2 

Total 352,231 

Cost of the Coi7inion Schools. 

Salaries $87,888,666 

Other expenditures 44,240,934 

Total . $132,129,600 

IMMIGRATION, 1893. 



From Europe. 

Austria .... 
Germany .... 
Hungary .... 

Italy 

• Poland .... 
Russia .... 
Sweden .... 
United Kingdom . 
England .... 
Ireland .... 
Other Ports . . . 
Total from Europe 
South An^erica 

Asia 

Africa 

Born at Sea . . 
Total . . . 



Males. 



24,036 
72,538 
27,463 
45,421 
22,141 
47,482 
25,104 

30,111 

27,275 
72,807 



374,378 
2,020 

9,075 
255 

53 



385,781 



Females. 



10,331 
58,220 
9,773 
13,739 
11,158 
31,812 
18,143 

19,659 

28,192 
33,067 



234,094 

884 

2,198 

96 

31 



237,303 



Total. 



34,367 

130,758 

37,236 

59, 1 60 

33,299 
79,294 

43,247 

49,770 

55,467 

105,874 



608,472 

2,904 

11,273 

351 



623,084 



FOREIGN TRAVEL. 

Number of Passengers, 1892. 



From 


Cabin. 


Other than 
Cabin. 


Total. 


Baltimore 

Boston 

Key West for Cuba .... 

New Orleans 

New York 

Philadelphia 

Other Seaports 


S60 

2,599 

9,132 

624 

88,920 

339 
66 


4,186 
6,184 

421 

127,689 

4,826 

231 


5,046 
8,783 
9,132 
1,045 
216,618 
5,165 
299 


Total 


102,549 


143,537 


246,086 



ANNUM, INDUSTRIES 



371 




Fig. 62. 



JImual J/idustries of tAe World Jbtal ^ 5i;9io,ooo,ooo 





Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64. 



-Manual industries q/^ 
me (Vorld, the United States . 



372 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Leading Productions of Leading Countries, 1888. 
Arranged according to value, hi most cases. 



COUNTRIES. 


PRODUCTIONS. 


LOCALITIES. 


Australia. 


Wool, gold, -wheat, hides. 


Wool in New South Wales, 




skins, tallow, frozen 


Queensland, and Victoria; 




and tinned meats , and 


gold in New South Wales ; 




copper. 


wheat in Victoria, South 
Australia, New Zealand, 
New South Wales. 


Argentine 


Wool, "whole carcasses " 


On the pampas. 


Republic. 


(siins, hides, and tal- 
low). Unseed. 




Austria. 


Grain (400,000,000 bush- 
els), wine, cattle, met- 
als, tobacco, flax, beer, 
beet sugar. 




Brazil. 


Coffee, caoutchouc, cotton. 


Coffee between Rio and 




hides, sugar, dia- 


Parana ; sugar in the eastern 




inojids, gold, cocoa. 


part ; diamonds among the 




tobacco, wool. 


Bazilian mountains ; caout- 
chouc along the Amazon. 


California, or 


Wheat, gold, wine, fruit. 


Wheat in the Sacramento 


Pacific States. 




Valley. 


Canada. 


Timber, grain, flax. 


Forests between Hudson Bay 




hemp, butter, cheese. 


and St. Lawrence. 


Chili. 


Copper, wheat, nitrate 


Copper-mines are in the north ; 




of soda. 


nitrate in the newly ac- 
quired land from Peru; 
wheat in the central part. 


China. 


Rice, tea, silk, bamboo, 


Rice in the south ; tea west of 




sugar, cotton. 


Amoy ; silk between 28° and 




(A whole cargo cannot be 


35° N. 




obtained at one port.) 




Cuba. 


Sugar, rum, molasses, to- 


Coffee on north side; tobacco 




bacco, coffee, mahoga7iy. 


west of Havana. 


Congo Free 


Caoutchouc, ivory, dye- 


Most of these productions are 


State. 


woods, palm-nuts, am- 


found in great abundance 




ber, beeswax. 


along the banks of the 




(Coal is sent from Eng- 


Congo River. 




land to Paul de Loando.) 





LEADING PRODUCTIONS 373 

Leading Productions of Leading Countries, 1888 {continued). 



COUNTRIES. 


productions. 


localities. 


Egypt. 


Cotton, cotton-seed, beans, 


Every thing is grown within a 




sugar, live-stock, dates. 


few miles of the Nile. 


France. 


Woollen goods, zvine, silk 


Woollen goods in the northern 




goods, beet sugar, silk- 


part, silk in the south cen- 




co coons, bran dy. 


tral, and wine and olives in 




wheat (the leading 


the southern part. 




crop, but not exported) ; 


Paris manufactures many- 




manufactured a r- 


articles calling for taste 




ticles, such as buttons, 


and ingenuity. 




feathers, flower s, calf- 






skins, gloves, laces, 






dress-goods, shawls. 






jewelry, etc. 






(In France, five persons 






are engaged in agricul- 






ture to one in man- 






ufacturing.) 




Germany. 


Cattle rearing, mining. 


Cotton manufactories are in 




and manufacturing 


Upper Germany, Saxony^ 




are staple industries. 


and Alsace; silk is man- 




Sugar and cereals for 


ufactured in Crefeld. 




England, silk manu- 






facturing, cotton manu- 






facturing, fotinderies. 




Great 


Textile industries. 


Iron in Yorkshire, Stafford- 


Britain. 


metal manufactures. 


shire ; coal in South Wales, 




mining, besides enor- 


north-eastern, and mid- 




m ous agricultural 


land; textile industries,— 




products. 


lace in Nottingham ; cotton 
in Manchester; woollen in 
Leeds ; cutlery in Birming- 
ham and Sheffield ; ship- 
building on the Clyde ; linen 
in Ulster ; shawls in Paisley ; 
carpets in Dundee; tin 
plates at Swansea; plum- 
bago in the " Lake " district ; 
tin in Cornwall. 



374 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Leading Productions of Leading Countries, 1888 {continued). 



COUNTRIES. 


productions. 


LOCALITIES. 


India. 


Sugar, rice, cotton, grain, 


Rice everywhere, especially in 




jute, opium, tea, coffee. 


Bengal ; tea in Assam, high 




(The fruits of India are 


elevation ; wheat in the Pun- 




mango, guava, plan- 


jab; shawls in Cashmere; 




tains, pineapples, mel- 


cabinet woods, etc., in Nepoul 




ons, gourds. Five 


and Madras; Burmah, rice 




crops of rice yearly 


and teak ; coffee in Ceylon. 




in some places. 






Lower Bengal has 




" 


three harvests ; viz.. 






in May, September, 






and November.) 




Italy. 


Silks, wheat, olive-oil, 


Sericulture, wine and olive-oil 




macaroni, s ulp h u r, 


raising, in the north ; sulphur 




wine, marble, zvorks 


is found in Sicily ; marble 




of art. 


in the northern part ; Rome 
is the centre of art. 


Japan. 


Silk, tea, rice, copper, 
tobacco, vegetable wax, 
camphor. 




Mexico. 


Silver, hennequen, cattle. 


The silver-mines are in the 




sugar, cabinet woods. 


central and north-western 




coffee, vanilla, sar- 


part; hennequen in Yuca- 




saparilla, sulphur. 


tan ; sugar near Vera Cruz ; 
woods in the south. 


Middle 


Hay, coal, iron, petro- 


Hay in New York; coal in 


States. 


leum, salt, etc. 


Pennsylvania ; iron in Penn- 
sylvania ; petroleum in 
Pennsylvania; salt in New 
York ; manufactured articles 
in New York, Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey. 


Russia. 


Grain, cattle, timber, 
brandy, mi7ies, cotton 
mautifactures, woollen 
tnanufactures, linen 
manufactures, flax, 
hemp. 





LEADING PRODUCTIONS 375 

Leading Productions of Leading Countries, 1888 {concluded). 



COUNTRIES. 


productions. 


localities. 


Southern 


Cotton, sugar, tobacco, 


Cotton, Alabama, Louisiana, 


States. 


rice, fruits, live-stock. 


Mississippi, etc. ; sugar, Lou- 
isiana ; tobacco, Kentucky- 
and Virginia ; rice, Carolinas ; 
peanuts, Virgi n ia; zinc. 
North Carolina; fruits and 
sponges, Florida ; live-stock, 
Texas. 


Western 


Grain, mining, lumber- 


Wheat, California and Illinois ; 


States. 


ing, manufacturing. 


corn, Illinois ; barley, Califor- 
nia ; oats, Illinois ; lead, Wis- 
consin ; copper, Michigan ; 
iron, Missouri; gold, all 
through the Rockies ; wine, 
California ; silver in Nevada; 
manufactured articles in 
Illinois ; lumber in Michigan. 


West Indies. 


Sugar, coffee, rum, log- 




(Jamaica.) 


wood, fruits. 




(Cuba.) 


Sugar, molasses, cigars, 
rum. 





Leading Exports of Leading Countries, 1888. 
Arranged according to value, in all cases. 



COUNTRIES. 


EXPORTS. 


exporting TOWNS. 


Australia. 


Wool, gold, wheat, tin, 
live-stock, coal, coffer, 
f reserved meat. (Aus- 
tralia trades with Great 
Britain, United States, 
and France.) 


Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane. 


Argentine 


Animal froducts, grain. 


Buenos Ayres, Rosario. 


Republic. 


wool. (18,000,000 cat- 
tle, 140,000,000 sheep, 
a year.) 





37^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Leading Exports of Leading Countries, 1888 {continued'). 



COUNTRIES. 


EXPORTS. 


EXPORTING TOWNS. 


Austria. 


Sugar ^ wood, gram, clock- 
■work and fancy wares, 
woollen manufactures. 


Trieste. 


Belgium. 


Grain, flax, linen, 
machinery, woollen 
yarn, hides, zinc. 


Antwerp. 


Brazil. 


Coffee, caoutchouc, 


Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Pernam- 




sugar, hides, cotton^ 


buco. Para. 




diamonds. (Exports, 






£20,000,000.) 




California. 


Wheat, flour, cottoti, 
(manufactured), gin- 
seng, wine, preserved 
fruits. 




Canada. 


Timber, fish from New- 


Montreal, Toronto, Quebec, 




foundland, animals. 


Halifax, Winnipeg. 




animal products, coal 






from Nova Scotia. 




Chili. 


Coffer ore, nit rat e, 
sugar, wheat, wool. 
(Chili trades with 
Great Britain, Ger- 
many, France, Peru.) 


Valparaiso. 


China. 


Tea (1885, 131,000,000 


Canton, Hong Kong, Shang- 




lbs. to England alone). 


hai. 




silk, sugar, straw 






braid, hides, cotton. 






fire-crackers. (China 






exports to Great Britain, 






United States, Europe.) 




Cuba. 


Sjigar, tobacco, tropical 


Havana, Matanzas, Kingston, 




fruits, jn ah oga n y. 


Bahamas. 




"yamaica rtt7n," cof- 






fee, sponges. 




Congo Free 


Ivory, caoutchouc, ebony. 


Borna (Vivi), St. Paul de 


State. 


palm-mcts, wax, gums, 
sugar. (Twenty-five 
steamers a month now 
reach the mouth of the 
Congo.) 


Loanda. 



LEADING EXPORTS 377 

Leading Exports of Leading Countries, 1888 {continued). 



COUNTRIES. 


exports. 


EXPORTING TOWNS. 


Eastern 


MamtfacUtrcd goods, 


Boston, Providence, Portland, 


States. 


lime, lumber, fish, 
marble, slate, granite. 


Gloucester. 


Egypt. 


Cotton, coitott-seed, beans 
(177,000,000 lbs. ex- 
ported in 1885, five- 
sevenths of all the 
exports), 7£'//f (7/, sugar, 
(Trades with Great 
Britain i^A), Turkey, 
France.) 


Alexandria. 


France. 


Woollen tnanufactnres, 
wine, silk, dairy prod- 
uce, brandy, sugar, 
leather. (France 
exports to Great Brit- 
ain, Belgium, Germany, 
United States, Switzer- 
land.) 


Marseilles, Havre, Bordeaux. 


Germany. 


Woollen manufactures, 


Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzic, 




sugar, silk viamifac- 


(grain). 




tures, animals, iron, 






leather niamifactures. 






(Germany exports to 






Great Britain, Austro- 






Hungary, France, 






Holland.) 




Great 


Given in detail on p. 383. 




Britain. 






Holland. 


Drugs, butter, iron. 
sugar. 


Amsterdam, Rotterdam. 


India. 


Cereals, cotton, seeds. 


Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, 




opium. Jute, tea, rice. 


Malabar coast, Coromandel 




wool, indigo. (India 


coast, Pondicherry, Ran- 




exports to Great Brit- 


goon. 




ain, China, France, 






Italy, United States.) 





378 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Leading Exports of Leading Countries, 1888 {continued'). 



COUNTRIES. 


EXPORTS. 


EXPORTING TOWNS. 


Italy. 


Silk, wine, olive-oil, eggs. 


Genoa, Leghorn, Messina, 




oranges, coral, hemp 


Palermo. 




and flax, snlphur. 






(Italy exports to 






France, Switzerland, 






Austria, Germany, 






Great Britain, United 






States. Exported 






three times as much 






silk as Japan.) 




Japan. 


Silk, tea, rice, cuttle-fish, 
copper, camphor, coal. 
(Japan exports to 
United States, France, 
China, Great Britain.) 


Yokohama. 


MEXICO. 


Silver, hen7ie qu e n, 


Vera Cruz, Merida, Paso del 




woods, coffee, hides and 


Norte, Mazatlan, Acapulco. 




skins, vanilla, tobacco, 






s 11 g a r, caoutchouc, 






honey, beans, orchil, 






copper, sarsaparilla. 






(Mexico trades with 






United States, Great 






Britain, France.) 






(Hennequen is exported 






from Merida, Yucatan, 






silver bullion from 






Paso, and coffee and 






goat-skins from Vera 






Cruz.) 




Middle 


Manufactured goods. 


New York, Philadelphia, 


States. 


flour, provisions, cot- 
ton (raw), coal, petro- 
leum, agricultural 
implements. 


Buffalo. 



LEADING EXPORTS 379 

Leading Exports of Leading Countries, 1888 {concluded). 



COUNTRIES. 


exports. 


exporting towns. 


Russia. 


Corn,flax, wood, linseed, 
hcmf, animals. (Rus- 
sia exports to Great 
Britain, Germany, 
France, Austria, Hol- 
land.) 


Odessa. 


Southern 


Cotton from Alabama 


New Orleans, Savannah, 


States. 


and Mississippi, sugar 
from Lotiisiana, rice 
from North and South 
Carolina, tobacco from 
Kentucky, fruits from 
Florida. (United 
States exports to Great 


Charleston, Richmond. 


• 


Britain, Germany, 
France, Canada, Bel- 
gium, Holland, Cuba.) 




Western 


Grain, lumber, iron, 


Chicago, St. Louis, Minne- 


States. 


copper. 


apolis. 


United 


Cotton, gold and silver. 


New York, New Orleans, 


States. 


breadstuff's, mineral 


Boston, San Francisco, 




oil, bacon and hams, 


Philadelphia. 




lard, animals, tobacco, 






■wood. 





Directions to the Teacher. — Correct the textbook by these tables, explaining 
to the children that these facts are arranged according to value, from the most recent 
statistics. 

Let the children find the difference between the productions and the e.\ports of 
countries. Are the imports of one country the productions of another ? Let the 
children have the pleasure of hunting for illustrations. 

By what means, under what flag, are the productions or exports of one country carried 
to another ? eg, England and United States. These statistical tables are only so 
much material with which to build a beautiful commercial structure, under the guid- 
ance of the architect, — the teacher. 



38o 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Leading Imports of Different Countries, 1888. 
Arranged according to value. 



COUNTRIES. 


IMPORTS. 


FROM 


Argentine 


Textiles^ coal, viachine- 


England, United States. 


Republic. 


ry. 




Australia. 


Lineal and silk goods, 
woollen goods and 
wool, sugar, iro7i and 
steel, hardware, tea, 
beer and ale, books, 
machinery. 


England. 


Austria. 


,Cotto7i, wool, grain, cof- 
fee, tobacco, hides. 




Belgium. 


Grain, wool, hides, an- 
imals, seeds. 




Brazil. 


Textiles, iron, coal, 


Great Britain, United States. 




machinery. 


* 


California. 


Sugar, silk (raw and 


Sandwich Islands, China, 




manufactured), coffee. 


Brazil, Japan, Java. 




tin, rice, wool (man- 






ufactured). 




Canada. 


Woollen manufactures, 
coal, cotton, sugar, 
grain atid flour, tea, 
railroad-iron. 


United States, Great Britain. 


Chili. 


Textiles, iron, machine- 
ry. 


Great Britain, Germany, Peru. 


China. 


Opium (from Benares, 
Malwha, and Patna,) 
textiles, inetals, woollen 
manufactures. 




Eastern 


Textiles, sugar, tea, cof- 


England, France, Cuba, 


States. 


fee, soft coal. 


China, Brazil. 


Egypt. 


Cotton manufactures, 
woollen niajiufactures, 
coal, provisions, ma- 
chinery and iron. 


England. 


France. 


Grain, wine, wool, silk, 


England, United States, 




timber, hides, cotton. 


South America, Russia. 




coal, coffee, machinery. 





LEADING IMPORTS 38 1 

Leading Imports of Different Countries, 1888 {concluded). 



COUNTRIES. 


imports. 


FROM 


Germany. 


Grain and flour, wool, 
raw cottoti, coffee, to- 
bacco, raw silk, hides, 
wine, coal, iron, ma- 
chinery. 


England, United States. 


Great 


Imports given in detail 




Britain. 


on p. 383. 




Hamburg. 


Sugar, woollen man- 
ufactures, coffee, cotton 
manufactures, cattle, 

wool. 




Holland. 


Drugs, grain, iron, 
coffee, sugar. 




India. 


Cotton manufactures, 
copper, railway mate- 
rial, iron, sugar, pro- 
visions, woollc7i goods, 
coal. 


England, 


Italy. 


Cotton, grain, coal, hides, 


England, France, United 




machinery, silk, sugar. 


States, Austria. 




wool, iron, fish, tex- 






tiles, timber. 




Japan. 


Sugar, woollen man- 
ufactures, cotton man- 
ufactures, mineral oil, 
iron, textiles. 


United States, England. 


Mexico. 


Textiles, iron, machine- 


United States, England. 


Russia. 


ry. 
Coal, cotton, tea, wool. 


England, United States, 




machinery, wine, tex- 


China, France. 




tiles. 




United 

States. 


Sugar, textiles, coffee, 
silk manufactures, 
hides, linen manufac- 
tures, tin, iron, india 


England, Germany, 
France, Brazil, Cuba, 
Canada, Mexico. 




rubber. 





382 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Exports of Great Britain, taken from Parliament Reports for 1885. 
Countries to which exported named according to value, the largest first. 



ARTICLES. 


countries, 


Beer and Ale. 




Australia, United States, Egypt, Africa. 


Books. 




Australia, United States, India, France. 


Coal. 




France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, Russia, Egypt, 
Spain, Denmark, Malta, Brazil, India, etc. 
(^50,000,000 in 1885.) 


Copper. 




India, France, Germany, Holland. 


Cotton (twist 


and 


India, Germany, France, Turkey, Belgium, Italy. 


yarn.) 






Cotton (manufact 


iires ). 


India, China, Turkey, Brazil, Egypt, United 
States, France, etc. (^150,000,000 in 1885. 
Most valuable export.) 


Lace. 




United States, Germany, Belgium. 


Earthern Ware 


and 


United States, Australia. 


China. 






Hardware and 


Cut- 


Australia, United States, and Germany. 


lery. 






Iron (pig). 




Germany, Holland, United States, Russia. 


Iron (rails). 




India, Australia, Canada, Argentine Republic, 
Egypt. 


Leather. 




Germany, Belgium, United States. 


Machinery. 




India, Australia, Italy, United States, Argentine 
Republic. 


Silk. 




United States. 


Woollen Manufac- 


United States, France, China, Canada, Belgium, 


tures. 




Italy. 



Imports of Great Britain. 

The leading imports of this, the greatest commercial country in the world, and the 
countries from which the same are brought, are given below. The countries are 
arranged in order of amount in value, the largest always being placed yfrj^. It should 
be remembered that Great Britain exports a great deal of these commodities to the 
various countries with which she trades. 

[Directions to the teach.er. — The United States leads in how many cases? 
Let the teacher put on the board such of these as she thinks wise to teach, and 
interest the children in these selected cases by arousing the imagination through a few 
questions. 

The following items in reference to England's imports are taken from Trade, 
Navigation, and Shipping Annual Statement, presented to Parliament, for 1885, No. 64, 
1886, and received in the Boston Public Library, 1887.] 



BRITISH IMPORTS 



383 



Leading Imports of Great Britain. 

Countries 7tamed according to value. 



ARTICLES IMPORTED. 



Animals. 

Bacon and Hams. 

Beef. 

Books. 

Brandy. 

Brimstone. 

Butter. 

Caoutchouc, 

Caoutchouc Man- 
ufactures. 
Cigars. 
Cochineal. 
Cocoa. 
Coffee. 
Copper. 

Corn. 

Cotton (raw;. 
Cotton (manufactures). 
Cutch and Gambia 

(dyes). 
Dyes (aniline). 
Eggs. 
Feathers. 
Fish. 
Flax. 

Fruit (apples). 
Fruit (oranges). 
Guttapercha. 
Hemp. 

Hides. 

Indigo. 
Iron (ore). 
Iron (bar). 



United States, Canada, Denmark, Holland, 
Germany. 

United States, Germany. 

United States, Canada, Australia. 

France, Holland, United States. 

France. 

Italy. 

Holland, France. 

Brazil, Portugal, West Africa, Straits Settle- 
ments, Bombay. 

Germany. 

United States, Cuba. 

Canary Islands, Mexico. 

West Indies, Ecuador. 

Ceylon, Central America, India, Brazil. 

Spain, United States, Portugal, Venezuela, Cape 

of Good Hope, Chili, Italy. 
United States, Russia, India, Australia. 
United States, Egypt, India. 
United States, Belgium. 
Straits Settlements. 

Holland, France. 

France, Belgium, Germany, Denmark. 

South Africa, France, Holland, East Indies. 

Canada, United States, Holland, France. 

Russia, Belgium, Holland, Germany. 

United States, Belgium, Canada. 

Spain, Italy, Portugal. 

Straits Settlements. 

Philippine Islands, Italy, Russia, Straits Settle- 
ments, United States. 

India, Belgium, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentine 
Republic. 

Bengal, Madras, Central America. 

Spain, Algeria. 

Sweden, Belgium, Holland. 



384 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Leading Imports of Great Britain (concluded). 



ARTICLES IMPORTED. 


FROM 


Ivory. 


Africa, Holland, India. 




Jute. 


Bengal, France. 




Lace. 


France, Holland, Belgium. 




Lard. 


United States, Canada, Denmark. 




Lead. 


Spain, Germany. 




Leather. 


India, United States, Australia, France, 


Holland. 


Linen. 


Belgium, Germany. 




Logwood. 


West Indies, Honduras, Hayti, Mexico. 




Meat. 


United States, Australia, Belgium. 




Olive-oil. 


Spain, Italy, Turkey, Morocco, Tunis. 




Petroleum. 


United States, Russia. 




Quicksilver. 


Spain, Italy. 




Rags. 


Germany, Belgium. 




Rice. 


India, Holland, Cochin-China. 




Rosin. 


United States. 




Saltpetre. 


India, Germany, Holland. 




Silk (raw). 


China, Belgium, France. 




Silk (manufactures). 


France, Holland, Belgium. 




Silk (ribbons). 


Belgium, France, Holland. 




Silver Ore. 


Spain, United States, Australia, Chili. 




Sugar (raw). 


Germany (beet-root), Java, British Guiana, West 




Indies. 




Tallow. 


Australia, United States, Uruguay, 
Republic. 


Argentine 


Tin. 


Straits Settlements, Australia, Holland, 


Java. 


Tobacco. 


United States, Holland, Japan. 




Tobacco (cigars). 


United States, Cuba. 




Wine. 


France, Spain, Holland. 




Wood (timber). 


Sweden, Russia, Canada, Germany, 
(mahogany). 


Mexico 


Wool (raw). 


Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Russia 


Turkey. 


Woollen Manufac- 


France, Holland, Germany. 




tures. 







CHAPTER XVIII 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGKAPHY 



The contemplation of celestial things will make a man both speak 
and think more sublimely and magnificently when he descends to 
human affairs. — Cicero. 

The heavens declare the glory of God ; and the firmament sheweth 
his handywork. — Psalms. 

385 



BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION 



Ball's Astronomy. 

Bowen's Astronomy by Observations. 

Champlin's Young Folks' Astronomy. 

Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. 

Fellowes's Astronomy for Beginners. 

Geographical Readers (first and second volumes) 

Giberne's Among the Stars. 

Jackson's Astronomical Geography. 

Langley's New Astronomy. 

Lockyer's Astronomy. (Primer.) 

Moore's Overhead. 

Proctor's various Books on Astronomy. 

Sharpless and Philips's Astronomy. 

386 



CHAPTER XVIII 
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 

DIFFICULTIES OF THE SUBJECT — DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS — FIRST AND SECOND 
YEARS — OBSERVATIONS — STUDY — READING AND TALKING — SELECTIONS FROM 
GEOGRAPHICAL READERS — A SONG OF THE DIRECTIONS — THIRD AND FOURTH 
YEARS OF STUDY — OBSERVATION OF THE SUN, EARTH, AND MOON — EXPERIMENTS 

— STUDY FORM OF EARTH, SIZE OF SUN AND EARTH — READING — FIFTH AND 
SIXTH YEARS — OBSERVATIONS OF VERTICAL STICK AT NOON, POSITION OF CON- 
STELLATIONS, MOVEMENT OF STARS, ETC., OF THE MOON, SHAPE OF THE EARTH 

— STUDY — REVIEW PREVIOUS CLASS WORK, SOLAR SYSTEM, EARTH's DAILY 
MOTION, REVOLUTION, CHANGE OF SEASONS, THE SUN, MOON, TIDES — READING 
AND TALKING 

IN some schools very little mathematical geography is 
attempted beyond the definitions given in the first part 
of the geography. These definitions being placed first in 
the book, are frequently learned among the first lessons 
assigned in the study ; and the child, neither understanding 
them, nor being interested in so abstruse a subject, very 
naturally and properly develops a hatred for geography. 
But no set of children ever read Overhead, by Misses Moore 
and Nichols, without being fascinated with the story, and 
without absorbing every astronomical fact therein set forth. 
The very youngest children are delighted to watch the moon 
or the evening star, and with a little help they can make 
important observations in reference to these heavenly bodies. 
The terrible definitions can be turned into drawing and 
object lessons, much to the joy of both teacher and pupil. 

There are a {q\\ schools where too much is expected of 
young children in this branch of geography, — too much for 

387 



388 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

the time, too much for the age, too much for the necessities 
of the case. 

In order to help teachers make this often-disliked subject 
interesting and attractive, and to guard against teaching 
more than seems warranted in the time allotted, and the age 
of the pupils, we have arranged the subject in this chapter 
according to the light of past experience. In a perfectly 
graded school, we think this much can be taught with profit 
and pleasure. 

Directions to the Teacher. — Assign to the younger children 
the simplest observations, a few easy and necessary definitions 
evolved from dravi^ing and examining objects, and then read to them, 
or tell them a few stories, about the stars and the earth. To the 
older classes the more difficult work can be given ; still reserving to 
the graduating class all the hardest portions of the subject. 

FIRST AND SECOND TEARS OF STUDY 

The teacher should encourage the children to make, 
during the first part of the school-year, the following 

1. Observations. 

1. Notice the movement of the sun through the sky 
during any bright day. Describe it, teUing the beginning, 
middle, and end of the journey. Where is the sun travel- 
ling during the night ? What other body goes through the 
sky in a similar way ? 

2. Tell about the moon's movements. 

3. Observe the stars. Try and find some prominent 
groups, such as the Great Dipper. In what part of the sky 
is it? Is the North Star near the Great Dipper? Try and 



OBSERVATIONS 389 

find it, if you can. Find two or three other groups or 
particular stars. 

4. At the beginning of school, set up a stick four feet 
long, in a vertical position in the yard. Notice at noon 
the direction in which the shadow falls. What points of the 
compass are thus marked out? North and south. Notice 
the length of the shadow. 

Or drive a nail into a narrow piece of board, so that it 
will stand up perpendicularly. At twelve o'clock place the 
board on a level window-seat in a south window, and mark 
the length of the shadow, with a pencil, Sept. 2 1 . Do the 
same the next week ; in October ; in November ; and on 
Dec. 21, or 22, if the sun shines at noon on those days; 
then again at various times subsequently ; and write out the 
results of the observations. These should be shown to 
the teacher for correction or explanation. 

The teacher can easily teach the young children many 
simple facts by little experiments such as the following : — 

Suspend an orange or apple by a string, and place pins 
in the orange in various parts pointing towards the centre, 
and explain that they all point downwards as far as the 
orange is concerned. Take one out from the side, and 
show them that it is moving ///. 

Show with an orange the difficulty of describing where a 
star cut in the peel is situated on the surface of the orange, 
till poles are designated by the axis (a wire) . Then draw 
a circle with colored crayon around the orange, equally 
distant from the poles, and let the children give it a good 
name, — equator. The star can now be easily located. 

From the direction of the shadow at noon, north and 
south are determined ; at right angles is east and west. 



390 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Locate these cardinal points upon the floor of the school- 
room near the door, where every child must pass over them 
in coming to school. Have the children explain the direc- 
tion in which each one's front door faces, the direction of 
the various streets, etc. 

2. Study. 

A line has length without breadth or thickness. Illustrate 
on the board and paper. Learn the names of the different 
straight lines, as perpendicular, horizontal, vertical, obUque, 
etc. 

Learn the difference between a curved and a straight line. 

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. 

A curved Hne changes its direction at every point, but a 
straight line does not change its direction at any point. 

Illustrate the difference, by drawing on the board or paper. 

A surface has length and breadth without thickness. 
Illustrate by using a sheet of paper, the blackboard, the top 
of the desk, the outside of the orange, globe, etc. 

Show the difference between a plane surface and a curved 
surface. 

Learn the difference between a plane surface and an 
, uneven surface. Illustrate. A plane is a surface upon any 
part of which a straight line may be drawn. Illustrate by 
using the edge of a ruler to represent the straight line, 
and placing this upon the top of the desk, on the side of 
the room, on the blackboard, on the floor. Planes may 
be perpendicular, oblique, or horizontal ; but we usually 
think of them as horizontal, like the floor. 

Observe the difference between a circle and a square, or 
a rectangle. Illustrate. 



FACTS TO LEARN 39 1 

A portion of a plane bounded by a line is generally called 
a geometric figure, such as circles, squares, rectangles, 
triangles, etc. 

A circle is a plane bounded by a curved line, every point 
of which is equally distant from a point within called the 
centre. Draw circles of different sizes, in different ways. 

Learn, draw, and name the different parts of a circle, such 
as circumference, diameter, radius, arc, etc. 

Learn how many radii make a diameter ; what a semi-circle 
is ; a semi-circumference. What is the difference between a 
circle and a circumference ? Learn the difference between 
a circle and an oval, or ellipse. Draw an oval. 

A solid has length, breadth, and thickness. Illustrate 
with a cube, a book, etc. Learn the difference between a 
cube and a sphere. Learn different parts of a sphere, as 
surface (curved), diameter, radius, centre, etc. 

From a globe learn the names of the poles, the various 
circles, such as equator, other circles parallel, circles cross- 
ing these, such as meridian, or jnid-day, circles. The latter 
all pass through what two points? Then learn the names 
of the two tropics ; the two Arctic circles. 

The form of the earth is also shown by the globe, and by 
an orange. It is usually called spherical, not round. Learn 
the difference between the two. 

Make on the board a circle, and draw the diameter. 
Children do the same. Show them, by cutting an apple or 
orange into two equal parts, how the circle represents on 
a flat surface the curved half-surface of the earth, called a 
hemisphere. 

Draw circles about the orange at the right places, to 
divide the same into the different zones, or belts, in reference 



392 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

to the heat. Draw straight hnes across the circle on the 
board, to correspond with these circles. Name these belts 
at first, (i) the hot belt, (2) the cool north belt, (3) the 
cool south belt, (4) the cold north belt, (5) the cold south 
belt. 

3. Reading and Talking. 

The Stick and the Shadow. 

During breakfast Harry said a great deal about the grand sunrise. After the meal 
was over they all made their way to the sands. The sun, which a few hours before 
Harry had seen rising out of the golden ripples in the east, was now much higher in 
the sky. His rays, too, had grown so hot that the people looked about for shelter. 

Harry's mother and father sat under the side of a boat in the shade, whilst the 
children, with naked feet, ran off to paddle in the water. And fine sport they had. 

With her fishing-net his sister Alice ran after lively little shrimps. Harry was 
busy with his pretty toy boat. 

But the sun growing hotter still, the children ran off to the shade of the boat. 
Great was their surprise when they found that the boat no longer threw a shadow to 
shelter them. The fierce rays came pouring down on the side of the boat, as if it 
would scorch them. And yet an hour before it was so cool there. This was a great 
wonder to the children. 

" Stop with me a little," cried their father. " I have a good lesson to teach you 
about this great sun and his doings." 

" Why, the sun is always on the move," said Harry. " I wish he would stand still 
a bit, and let me cool myself" 

"Yes, my boy; and it is just because he always seems to move on that he is so 
very useful. This makes him a good old time-keeper. Let us watch him. Stand my 
stick upright in the sand. What do you now notice ? " 

" A shadow J " cried Harry. " A shadow thrown by the stick on the yellow 
sand." 

Their father made a groove where the shadow fell, and with much care cut a line 
on the sand to show its length. It was then eleven o'clock. The children played an 
hour longer, and came back. There were still the stick and the shadow, — the same 
stick, but not the same shadow. 

" Why, father, look at the shadow," cried Harry. " See how much shorter it is, 
and it has left the old groove. It has gone more to the east. Why can this be ? " 

" That is just what I wished to hear you ask about, my children. 

" I could have told you the story of the stick and the shadow before, but I wished 
you to see this with your own eyes. 

" The fact is, the sun not only seems to move on in his daily course, but he gets 
higher and higher in the sky for a certain time. And, you see, as he rises higher he 
throws shorter shadows. You can now run and play an hour longer." 



SIZE OF THE EARTH 393 

At one o'clock the children came back. Where was the shadow then ? It had 
again changed its place, but had now grown longer, — just as long as it was at eleven. 

" How strange ! " cried Harry. And it began to puzzle him. 

" You see," said his father, " at twelve o'clock the sun stood as high as he could in 
the sky. Now he is sinking lower and lower. 

" We call the time of the day when the sun is at his highest, mid-day, or twelve 
o'clock. The part of the heavens in which he is then seen is called the south. Thus 
you have learnt one more useful fact, — the sun is seen in the south at noon, or 
twelve o'clock. 

" Let us now go home to dinner." 

LiEARN. — (n) The sun reaches his hif/hcst itoint in the heavens 
at twelve o'clock, or ■tnid-day, 

(6) The sun shines in the " south " at mid-day, or noon. — 
Albert Geographical Reader. 

Size of the Earth. 

" Shall I tell you more about the size of the earth? " said the father. 

" Oh, yes! if you please." 

" Well, since I have been a sailor, I have found, that, though the earth seems 
large, yet it is not such a very big body after all. 

" We can get about so quickly that places that we once thought a long way off 
seem near to us now. When I was a little boy like you, it took more than a week to 
go in a coach from one end of this country to another. Now we can go the same 
distance in half a day. 

" Not only can we get about veiy quickly on land, but on the sea fast steamboats 
can take us from one country to another nearly as quickly as a train could. My 
ship can steam about twenty miles an hour, and I can go to America in about seven 
days and a half. 

" The first man who sailed round the world took more than two years. How 
long was I gone on the voyage before this '? " 

" I know," said the boy. " When you sailed, it wanted six months to my birth- 
day ; and you said you would try and get back in time for some cake, and that you 
would bring me a parrot as => birthday gift." 

"And I reached home 1 week before. — Hark! what does Polly say? 'Go 
ahead! Port your helm! E„sy! Stop her! ' — And yet I had been quite round the 
world, and some ships can do the voyage in less time than that. 

" And there is something else that makes me feel that the earth is not so very 
large. When I was just half-way round the world, I wanted to speak to those who 
own the ship at home. So I sent a message to them after dinner, and I had an answer 
back again by the next morning. Do you know how I spoke to them ? " 

" You must have sent a telegram." 

" That is just what I did; and it made me feel, that, after all, the world is not 
so very big." — Geographical Reader. 



394 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



The Mariner's Compass. 

" Put on your hats and jackets, children. Let us talk to the sailors, and see the 
ships." 

When they reached the harbor, their father took them over a vessel, and showed 
them the compass. 

" Oh ! what a funny clock ! " cried Alice. " What a pretty clean face it has ! " 

" It is not a clock at all," said her father. " We call it a compass. By means of 
this, sailors can find their way about the sea better than most landsmen can travel 
through the country. So it is known as the sailor's or mariner' s compass. 

" The compass has only one hand, called the needle. This is made of steel, and it 
is a tnagnet," 

"A magnet, father!" said Harry. "The one you gave me was like a horse- 
shoe." 

" All magnets are not made like horseshoes. If a magnet is made straight and flat, 
and hung up on a point in the middle, one end of it will always turn to the north, do 
what you will with it. 

" On the card below the needle there are as many as thirty-two points. Of 
course, the chief of these are north, south, east, and west. So sailors never care 
where they are: they neither want sun nor star to guide them." 

"How strange!" said Alice. "What makes the needle turn always to the 
north? " 

" That, my child, I cannot tell. It is one of the greatest of all wonders. We only 
know that it does so, and that the north is the greatest of all magnets." 

The children went back in a great puzzle. 

Every ship carries at least one compass, by which the sailors see in which direction 
they are going, and which way they must steer the vessel. 

When the north is found, either by the help of the north star or the compass, it is 
easy to find out the other points of direction. 

With your face to the north, your back is to the south, the east is on your right 
hand, and the west is on your left hand. — First Geographical Reader. 



A Song of the Directions. 

" I'm off to the South," sang the sun to the moon, 

As he bade her good-by at the door. 
" You know I must shine there exactly at noon. 

Or the world would trust me no more." 

"Oh, stay, dearest spouse! " sighed the moon to the sun: 

" Ere you go, love, partake of this feast. 
'Tis a very long journey you have now to run. 

For at morning you start from the F-\st." 



POEMS — OBSERVATIONS 39c 

" 'Tis true, fairest moon. You're both lovely and kind, 

But your thoughtfulness pleases me best. 
How good it was of you my breakfast to mind, 

For at evem'ng-l'm called to the West." 

" I'm so glad," said the moon, as his breakfast he ate, 

" That you ne'er have to shine from the North, 
For to melt all the snow there would keep you too late." 

Here he kissed her, and took his way forth. 

" Be as quick as you can," through her tears sobbed the moon 

(Those tears are the dewdrops of morn) . 
" Yes, yes! " cried the sun, " I'll come back to thee soon; 

I'd ne'er leave my own true love forlorn. 

" And when my work's done, my steps I'll retrace. 

So weary not while I'm away; 
For at night I shall shine on thy beautiful face, 

Though the cold world needs me by day." 

Pkilips's Geographical Reader 

The North Star. 

Fixed in the north shines the bright Pole Star, 

Guiding the sailor's way from afar; 

Round and round it all other stars go. 

But the Pointers always the pole's place show. 

THE THIRD AND FOURTH TEARS OF STUDY 

1. Obserration. 

The pupils at the beginning of the year should now 
observe with care the exact position of the sun in the 
morning, at noon, and at sunset, and report to the teacher. 
Then the next day, with a little help from the teacher, mark 
these positions carefully, so they can be compared after- 
wards if changes take place. Take these observations 
once a week ; report changes. Sept. 2 1 observe carefully 
the path of the sun through the heavens, for the sun on 
that day moves over the equator on what is called the 



396 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

celestial equator. Draw a line, if possible, in the yard, 
between the points of rising and setting sun. Before 
noon drive a stake in this line, and at noon — true 
time, not standard time — observe the direction of the 
shadow cast by the stake. See if the first line and this 
shadow-line are at right angles. Prolong the shadow-line 
across the first line, and test with compass to find directions 
of the four cardinal points. 

Which one of these lines indicates the mid-day circle? 
Does meridian mean mid-day circle ? (Medidian changed, 
for ease in pronunciation, to meridian, means middle day.) 
Find out what streets or roads run in the same direction 
as the meridians ; what ones cross them at right angles, 
and therefore run in the direction of the parallels. In going 
home, do you travel on a parallel, or a meridian, or neither? 

Take an orange or an apple, and divide the sphere into 
two equal parts, by a line passing around it, making a large 
circle. Call this line an equator. Draw a small circle 
around parallel to the equator, on each side, one-fourth 
of an inch distant. This encloses a belt, or zone. Draw 
another circle round, one-third of an inch distant from each 
of the last circles. Two belts, or zones, will be thus pro- 
duced, and two circular belts, one at each pole, or extrem- 
ity of the axis. Give these zones appropriate names. 

Then let the children find, on the globe, the different 
parallels. Show them that all these are circles, but not 
circles of the same size. 

Show how these circles help to locate places, especially 
on the great oceans, north or south of the equator. Explain 
the meaning of " 40th parallel." 

Ask the children if it is as important to have lines, or 



LONGITUDE 397 

circles, to help locate places in reference to east or west? 
If it is, we need a line to count from. Once every nation 
counted from its own national capital ; but every year more 
and more people are using Greenwich, near London, as the 
first line, or the line from which so many people reckon 
distance, east or west, usually called the yfr^r/ meridian. 

Draw lines on the orange, or slate globe, to show these 
lines going north and south round the globe. They all pass 
through the poles. Ask the children if they are parallel. 

Let them see them on the globe. Let them open their 
book to the map, and find the same lines. 

These lines, running north and south, are called meridians, 
— mid-day hnes, — because all the places along one of these 
lines have mid-day at the same time. 

Explain, that, for convenience, each circle is divided into 
three hundred and sixty equal parts ; and each part is called 
a degree. Therefore the distance round the earth is 
called 360°; one-half round would be i8o°; one-fourth 
way round, 90°. 

Show the pupils that Springfield, 111., is just one-fourth of 
the distance round the earth from London. Hence it is 
called 90° west of London. 

The Feejee Islands, Gulf of Anadir, Eastern Siberia, or 
New Zealand, are each about half-way round the world, 
or on the opposite side of the earth from London. Hence 
they are said to be nearly 180° west of London. 

Now explain : longitude, the distance measured east or 
west from any given meridian, as the one running through 
Greenwich ; latitude, the distance measured north or south 
from the equator. 



^ 



398 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Moon. 

. Locate the position of the new moon in September, and 
report to the teacher where and when observed. Illustrate 
by drawing. Keep the drawing. In a few evenings look at 
moon again, and notice change in appearance. Draw on 
paper the new appearance. 

In seven days from first observation make another at 
sunset. If the moon is overhead see if that half towards 
the observer is illumined. Draw again. 

About fifteen days from new moon make another observa- 
tion, and report to teacher appearance, where in sky, and 
when seen. Draw. Learn good names for these changes, 
called phases of the moon. 

Experiment. 

Show the alternation of day and night, by some such 
experiment as the following : — 

On a dark day, or near close of afternoon session in winter 
months, have a small kerosene-lamp (with a tin reflector if 
convenient, although not necessary if room is pretty dark), 
and a small hand-globe. 

Show that only one-half is illumined at one time. Then, 
by rotation, show that every part may become illumined 
alternately. Place the lamp on the eastern side of the room, 
and let it represent the rising sun. Ask the children to 
think of the sun as standing still, just as the lamp is, 
and the earth turning as the globe is turned. Fasten a 
small piece of paper on the globe to represent where you 
live, and place or hold the globe so the north pole will 
point towards the north, and then turn from west to east. 



RAYS OF LIGHT 



399 



The children will be able to see the white paper pass into 
the light, — sunrise ; come directly before the lamp, — 
noon ; and pass into the dark half, — sunset. 

Draw on the board a circle to represent the earth, with a 
radius of twelve inches or more. Outside of this draw 
a larger circle, with a radius three inches longer, to repre- 
<,ent the atmosphere about the earth. Let a wide black- 




Fig. 65. — Diagram sbowiag the Difference between Perpen- 
dicular and Sloping Rays of Light and Heat. 



board ruler represent rays of light, or, better, a solid oblong. 
Place this on the board above the circles, to represent 
vertical rays, and draw the lines Ai and B2, Fig. 65. 

Then incline the ruler at various angles, and draw such 
lines as A3, C5, and A4, D6. Then show the children 
that the distance AD is almost twice AB ; hence the sloping 
rays cover much more ground, and are not so hot in conse- 
quence. Then the sloping rays near morning and sunset 



400 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

pass through more masses of air, and consequently lose a 
part of the heating and lighting power. 

The effect of the difference in the heating-power of 
perpendicular and oblique rays is shown whenever persons 
travel north from the south. As the person travels farther 
north, the sun seems to travel farther south ; and the 
obliquity of his rays increases, and their heating-power 
consequently decreases. And this is always the result 
noticed. 

Lead the pupils to notice how many sides of a ball they 
can see at once. How much of the globe can be illumined 
at once by a lamp in a darkened room ? In order that a 
person may see the other side of a ball without changing 
hisposition, the ball must be ? [Pupils tell.] 

Experiment, and find out how to illumine the other side 
of the globe. 

2. study. 

The Form of the Earth. — Ancients believe the earth was 
flat, — a great circular plain. 

Now believed to be 7iearly spherical, because 

(a) Men like Magellan, Blake, and Cook have sailed 
around it ; 

(b) Ships seen on the ocean show the sails first, and hull 
afterwards ; 

(c) Sailors approaching land see the tops of the moun- 
tains, and the tops of the high buildings, first. 

What would a sailor do who wanted to have the last look 
at the land he was leaving? Climb up the rigging. 

When farmers in Dakota are travelling in the valley of the 
Red River of the North, they see first the tops of trees and 
houses in the distance, then the middle part of the object, 



FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 4OI 

and by and by, as they approach nearer, the base of the 
house, the trunk of the tree ; which shows how very level 
this section is, formed at the bottom of a great inland lake 
in glacier periods, and it also proves the rotundity of the 
earth. 

S/zc of the Earth. — Learn the diameter, about eight 
thousand miles ; then the circumference, three and one-thirtl 
times that, or about twenty-five thousand miles. 

Find how long an express-train, going at the rate of forty 
miles an hour, would require to go round the earth at the 
equator, or on a meridian. It would take a steamship about 
four months. 

Review the circles learned in the previous year. 

What is meant by the centre of a circle ? the plane of a 
circle? Cut an apple to illustrate. Learn what circles are 
great circles, and what small circles. 

All these circles are divided into three hundred and sixty 
parts, called degrees. Angles are thus measured. When we 
speak of its being ninety degrees from the equator to the 
pole, we mean it is one-fourth of three hundred and sixty 
degrees, or one-fourth of the way round the earth. 

Learn the meaning of latitude and longitude, as defined 
in any geography. What use for these terms? 

Illustrate the use of the terms, on the globe. Draw maps, 
and mark off the latitude and the longitude. Reckon the 
longitude from Greenwich. 

From what place do we reckon latitude? How many 
degrees of each can a place have ? 



402 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Sun and Earth. 

The moon is a great distance from the earth. But if we 
should hollow out the sun, and place the earth in the centre, 
there would be room enough for the moon to go on moving 
in her present orbit at two hundred and forty thousand 
miles from the earth, — all within the globe of the sun 
itself. 

Draw a circle on the board, half an inch in diameter, and 
let it represent the earth. Draw another, fifty-four inches in 
diameter : the latter will represent the size of the sun. 

The earth's diameter is eight thousand miles ; that of the 
sun, eight hundred and sixty thousand miles. 

The sun is so far away from the earth, that, if an express 
train had started when the " Mayflower" sailed to this country 
with the Pilgrim Fathers, it would not yet have reached us, 
although travelling day and night. The fare for such a 
journey, at the regular rates, would be nearly two million 
dollars. 

Learn the meaning of the word " rotation." Illustrate with 
top, wheel, and globe. Learn where the axis and the poles 
are. How long does it take the earth to rotate, or spin, 
once? 

How many times does it rotate in a year like 1889 ? 1888 ? 

The sun stands still, and the earth's rotation produces 
day and night. Thus every place comes in sight of the 
sun, making sunrise for that place ; every place arrives 
opposite the sun, making mid-day ; every place loses sight 
of the sun, making sunset. 



SHAPE OF THE EARTH 403 



Read to the Class 

at the first appropriate opportunity, some such selection as 
the following : — 

Shape of the Earth. 

Though the boys had very much enjoyed their holiday trip to the seaside, as well 
as their extra walks in the fields and woods, yet they were glad to commence afresh 
their lessons in the schoolroom, and to learn more about the great world on which we 
live. 

Their father was pleased that what they had seen fitted them the better to receive 
some further lessons which he proposed to give them. 

The boys had told Mr. Goodman of their voyage round the lake, and had shown 
him their chart And on the ne.\t day, they were in the schoolroom at an early hour. 

" Looking over my library yesterday," said the father, " I found a book called 
A Voyage Round the World, which led me to compare it with your voyage round 
the lake. You have heard, no doubt, that the world is round ; not flat as it seems to 
us, but round and solid like a ball. It is therefore called a sphere or globe. 

"I will try to make this clear," added Mr. Goodman, " if Fred will allow us the 
use of his large India-rubber air-ball for a few minutes." 

Master Fred lost no time in fetching the ball, and placing it on the schoolroom 
table It had not been on the table a minute before a blue-bottle fly settled on the 
ball, and moved about as though he were out on a journey of pleasure. 

" See," said Mr. Goodman, " there is a fly creeping on the ball, and marching 
forward as straight as it can: if it keeps on the path it has chosen, it will come to the 
same place again." 

" I wonder," said Master Fred, " if the fly knows that the ball is round? " 

" Perhaps not," replied the father: " but whether it knows the shape of the ball, or 
not, we are quite sure that it cannot see all over the globe at once. It has wonderful 
eyes, but still it is not able to see over the curve, and to know what is on the other 
side of the ball; it must go round to find that out. It can see so little of the ball at 
once, that, if there were another fly a few inches from this one, they could not see one 
another, because neither of them could see far over a curve. 

" Now, we are just like flies, only very much smaller in proportion to the size on 
the surface of the great globe called the earth. On the largest plain, or even on the 
wide ocean, we cannot see very far, because both land and water are bent round like 
the surface of the ball. 

" Just as two flies, a few inches apart on the football, are unable to see each other, 
so we, who are larger, and placed on a much greater globe, cannot see people who are 
a few miles away, even on the sea, where there are no houses nor trees nor hills Xn 
stand in the way. It is not that our eyes are weak, but because they are not made 
to see round a comer, or over a curve. 



404 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



" Just fancy a ship sailing in one direction only, — say always going eastward : it 
would at last come to the place from which it started. We know that it cannot sail 
exactly in a straight line all round the world, because some portions of land lie in the 
path-; but when a ship does sail as straight as possible, and turns round any piece of 
land that lies in the way, and then gets into the straight line again, it comes to the 
place it started from, just as a pencil or a fly would in going round a ball. This is one 
proof that the earth is round like a ball or an orange." 

Read to the class, also, from Overhead, by Annie Moore 
and Laura D. Nichols (pubhshed by D. Lothrop & Co., 
Boston ; price ^1.25), the following selections : — 



" Planets vs. Chickens " 

" Eclipses " 

" The Seasons " . 

"The Moon" 

"The Sun" 



P- 39- 
p. 67. 

P- 11- 
p. 116. 
p. 188. 



FIFTH AND SIXTH TEARS OF STUDY 

Observations. 

On the first day of school in September observe, with a 
vertical stick, the length of the shadow cast at noon. 
Compare this length with the length cast two weeks later, 
and report whether the shadow is longer or shorter. 

By means of the same vertical stick in the yard, or in the 
schoolroom if the sun enters, trace the shadow on Sept. 21, 
at exactly twelve o'clock, true time. Draw a line across this 
shadow-line at right angles, and observe if it points to the 
part of the horizon where the sun rises and sets at this time 
of the year. Now mark the four cardinal points, obtained 
by the direction of the shadow and the line at right angles. 
Indicate the meridian of the place where the observation 
was made. Verify the same with the compass. 

A vertical stick always points to the zenith. Suppose 
one is standing in the schoolyard, like AB, Fig. 66, long 



APPARATUS FOR MEASURING LATITUDE 



405 



enough to reach above B, the ground, some eight feet. At 
a convenient point above B fasten to the vertical, with a nail 
or screw, another stick three or four feet long, so that it will 
move in line with the direction of the shadow, as is indicated 
in the figure by C D. With the eye at C, move the sun- 




Fig. 66. — Diagram showing a Simple Apparatus for measuring 
the Latitude of a Place, Sept. 21. 

stick till it points to the sun just at noon on Sept. 21. 
Secure the stick in this position. Then place against the 
two sticks a piece of paper, and trace the angle made by 
the two sticks. Draw a circle about the vertex of this angle, 
and measure it as shown in the figure. 



4o6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Conclusions. — If there is no angle between the sticks, 
there will be no shadow cast by the vertical stick ; and the 
schoolyard must be situated on the equator, it being Sept. 
2 1 when the observation was made. If the shadow falls 
towards the south, then the observers must be south of the 
equator, perhaps in the Argentine Republic. If the shadow 
falls towards the north, then the school must be situated 
north of the equator, perhaps in the United States or in 
England. 

If the angle is about twenty degrees between the two 
sticks, and the sun-stick falls from the vertical towards the 
south, then the school is twenty degrees north of the equator. 
If the angle is forty degrees, as in Fig. 66, then the school 
stands in 40° north latitude. 

Observe the position of the North Star, the Great Dipper, 
and the group which looks hke a chair opposite the Great 
Dipper, on the other side of the North Star, and called 
Cassiopeia. Then draw on paper the positions of the two 
groups. If the observation was made at eight p.m., about 
the middle of September, the position will be as given in 
Fig. 67. 

Examine the position three hours later, and notice the 
change. The groups have moved from east to west, round 
just one-eighth of the circle. 

This apparent motion from east to west is produced by 
the rotation of the earth from west to east. 

In the daytime sit in a room facing east or west, and 
from which you have a good view of the sun. Draw the 
curtain to hide partly the too bright rays of the sun. Sit in 
a chair some distance from the window, so that you can see 
the sun directly through a pane of glass, but near a section 



POSITION OF r.REAT DIPPER AND CASSIOPEIA 



407 



of the frame of the window. Keep the head perfectly still, 
and notice if the sun moves near the frame, or from it. A 
long paper tube, or piece of pipe two feet in length, will 
help to make the experiment more decided. A change 




^ 



Fig. 67. — Position of Great Dippei^ and Cassiopeia, in 
September. 

will be noticed in five to ten minutes. This is evidence of 
the earth's rotation. Repeat the experiment in the evening, 
with the moon or a star. 

Watch a sunset, and try to think of the earth moving 



408 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

towards the sun, and of the sun standing still, as it really 
does. After one or two trials, you will succeed in seeming 
to see the earth move up towards the sun. 

The position of the sun at sunrise, noon, and sunset 
should be carefully noticed the second day of school, the 
2ist of September, in October, and finally the 21st of 
December, and results compared. 

The new moon is usually seen early in the evening, in the 
western sky. Notice its exact position at eight o'clock p.m., 
by standing in a certain place, and marking the position by 
two points, — a tree, and a corner of a house ; a distant 
church-spire, and a building ; a hill, and some other point. 
The next night take the same position, and notice the 
change. The moon has moved one twenty-fourth of three 
hundred and sixty degrees towards the east. 

Notice another change in its appearance. The bright 
part has increased in size. 

Look in the almanac, and see when the moon rises or sets ; 
see if the almanac is correct by your local time. Find out, 
by actual observation, how much later or earlier it rises or 
sets on the following day. Look at the moon through a 
pair of opera-glasses, but never try this experiment on the 
sun. [Why ?] 

Observe all the phases of the moon, and notice the rela- 
tive position of the moon, the earth, and the sun. Draw on 
paper these positions. Learn which side is illumined, — the 
side turned towards the sun, or from it. At first quarter 
was the crescent vertical, or horizontal ? 

If the part turned towards the sun be the part illumined, 
would that be a proof that the moon is lighted by sunlight ? 

When the moon is in her first quarter, notice if you see a 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH 4O9 

faint illumination of that part of the hemisphere which is not 
included in the bright crescent. Does the sun then shine 
on the western portion of the earth? Could this light from 
the earth be reflected to the moon, and light it up as " earth 
light," and then be reflected to our eyes from the surface of 
the moon ? Observe the exact position, by means of two 
fixed points, of the rising and setting of the moon, and 
see if the moon moves like the sun towards the south, 
and back again. 

Observations in Reference to the Shape of the Earth. 

Climb a hill, or building, or tall monument. The horizon 
increases in size, which is proof that the earth is spherical. 

If the horizon is always circular, rather than oval, in shape, 
it is proof that the earth is spherical, rather than egg-shape. 

Standing by the beach, notice the appearance of ships 
sailing far away, or coming towards the shore. 

When there is a good opportunity, set up three stakes, 
six feet high, on a long, sandy beach ; then sight from No. 
I to No. 3, and notice that the middle one seems to be 
higher than the other two, which is a rough proof that 
the beach is spherical instead of level, as it seems. 

As one travels towards the equator, the North Star appears 
nearer and nearer the horizon, which would not happen if 
the earth were flat. 

When the moon is next eclipsed (find out hour and day 
from almanac), notice the shape of the shadow of the earth 
cast on the face of the moon. If the shadow is circular 
again, as it always has been, it is proof that the earth is 
spherical. 

Magellan, years ago, sailed round the earth ; and lately 



4lO METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Mr. Stevens of Boston has travelled round the world on a 
bicycle. 

If a person goes up in a balloon, he sees land and water, 
not only below him, but seemingly around him. The higher 
he goes, the higher rises the sky-line, till he seems hanging 
over a hollow bowl. The same appearance takes place 
when a person climbs a mountain rising from a plain. The 
sky-line, or circle of the horizon, becomes farther and 
farther away. 

2. Study. 

Review Form of Earth ; Size of Earth. 

Such terms as diameter, circumference, radius, meridian, 
equator, tropics, Arctic circles, poles, parallels, longitude, 
latitude, study in any good textbook on geography. ' 

Learn a few facts about the solar system, as 

The sun is the centre. Round him revolve eight planets, 
divided into two groups ; viz., {a) The nearer group, such 
as Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars ; {i^) Jupiter, Saturn, 
Uranus, and Neptune. 

Draw on the board a circle two inches in diameter, and 
color it red, for the sun ; then draw about it circles having 
a radius of three inches to represent the orbit of Mercury, 
four inches to represent that of Venus, five inches for the 
earth's orbit, seven for Mars, eighteen for Jupiter, thirty-two 
for Saturn, sixty-five for Uranus, ninety-six for Neptune. 
The last two you can only indicate by pinning a colored 
piece of paper, at the right distance from the sun, on the 
side of the room, over the blackboard. 

Of the first four, the earth is the largest. Of the second 
four, Jupiter is the largest. 

* Barnes's is especially recommended. 



STUDY OF THE PLANETS AND STARS 4tt 

Jupiter is 1,390 times the size of the earth. 

Mercury is thirty-five million miles from the sun, Venus 
sixty-six million miles, the earth ninety-two million miles, 
Mars one hundred and thirty-nine million miles, etc. Mars 
is noted for its red appearance, Jupiter for its belts, Saturn 
for its two rings. 

The earth has one moon ; but Jupiter has four, and 
Saturn has eight. By these moons, the people can tell the 
time of day. 

The four inner planets rotate in about one day of twenty- 
four hours ; the outer ones, in a day of ten hours. The sun 
rotates in a day of six hundred hours. The earth revolves 
about the sun in one year, Mercury in one-fourth of a year, 
Venus in about one-half of a year, Mars in two years, and 
Jupiter in twelve years. 

On Mars, the ice and snow about the poles can be dis- 
tinctly seen. 

The diameter of the sun is eight hundred and sixty thou- 
sand miles. All the planets are equal in size to one seven- 
hundredth of the sun. 

The stars are supposed to be suns, and centres of systems. 

Romer found that a ray of light travels at the rate of one 
hundred and eighty-five thousand miles in a second of time, 
at which rate it will take four hours for light to go from 
the sun to Neptune, eight minutes to go from the sun 
to the earth, and three years to reach the nearest star. 
For light to reach some of the stars would require several 
centuries. 



412 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The Earth's Daily Motion, called Rotation. 

This motion is best illustrated at first by a top's spinning. 
The earth spins round its axis once in twenty- four hours. 
The axis is the imaginary line around which it spins or 
turns; illustrated to the eye by a small globe. (Nothing is 
better for this than a twenty-five cent paper globe.) Differ- 
ent children should handle the globe, and point out the axis 
and poles. (See p. 396.) 

It is important at this point for the teacher to ask the 
pupils to imagine the great earth rotating in space, as seen 
from the moon. A picture like the first one in Warren's 
Common School Geography will help the boys and girls 
wonderfully. 

The teacher can help by asking such questions as these : — 

1. If we were on the moon, what size would the earth 
seem to be? 

2. If we could see it with a good telescope, how would 
the poles look ? 

3. What is a telescope? 

4. How many pupils have one ? 

5. How many have seen one? 

6. How many have a similar instrument? 

7. Could we see the axis? 

8. Could we tell where the axis is located ? 

9. Could we perceive a spinning motion? 

10. Do we see such a motion when we look at the 
moon ? 

1 1 . If not, why not ? 

12. Would the earth seem to move among the clouds as 
the moon does, when viewed from the earth? 



DIRECTION OF THE EARTH'S ROTATION 413 

13. Does the air on the earth move with the earth, or 
does the earth move in this belt of air? 

14. Viewed from the moon, would the rate of rotation at 
the poles and at the equator be the same ? 

15. If different, where would it be the swifter? Why? 

Direction of the Earth's Rotation. 

The earth turns from tuest to east. This makes what 
two heavenly bodies appear to move from east to 
west? 

Every morning this movement of the earth brings pupils 
and teacher into the sunlight, and makes this light come 
from the east. What would happen if the earth should 
forget for a week to rotate ? 

On account of the earth's rotation, in this way it happens, 
that, when the London boy goes home from school at five 
o'clock for his supper, the Boston boy is going home for his 
dinner at 12 M., and the San Francisco boy is going to 
school at nine o'clock in the morning, and the Honolulu boy 
is breaking his night's fast at 6 a.m., and the Chinese 
boy is dreaming of kites and fire-crackers. 

At St. Petersburg, in sixty degrees north latitude, the 
speed of the rotation is about nine miles a minute ; in 
Paris it is eleven and a half; at the ecjuator it is eighteen 
miles a minute, or a thousand miles an hour, which equals 
the flight of a cannon ball. 

The earth rotates once in twenty-four hours. The proof 
is found, {a) in the apparent rotation of the Great Dipper 
and other stars, every twenty-four hours (see p. 407) ; 
{F) if a stone is dropped from a high monument or cliff, it 
always falls east of a vertical line. 



414 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The effects of this rotation are to cause, — 

1 . An alternation of day and night. 

2. A flattening at the poles. 

3. The apparent motion of the sun, moon, and stars, in 
the opposite direction. 

The Yearly Motion of the Earth, or its Revolution. 

Illustration : Jackson's Astronomical Geography, Rey- 
nolds's Astronomical Chart ; all astronomies and some geog- 
raphies contain pictures of this yearly motion. The best is 
in Barnesr^s Geography, pp. 9 and 10. (See Fig. 68, p. 417.) 

A globe held before the light streaming in through a solar 
camera gives the pupils the best idea of the illumination 
of the earth, and the changes of the seasons. A common 
lamp and the globe, used on a dark afternoon, will answer 
very well. 

If three pasteboard maps or writing- charts be spread out 
upon the teacher's desk, and a large ball be placed in 
the centre, or, better, to avoid confusion, if the teacher 
place a circular piece of paper of a bright color on the 
centre of the chart, to represent the sun, the pupils will 
have a pretty good representation of the sun, the plane of 
the earth's orbit, and the orbit itself A small globe carried 
round the edge of these charts, not above the edge, the 
north pole always pointing towards the north, will help 
the children to imagine how the world travels round the sun 
each year. Place something high up on the north side of 
the room to represent the North Star. 

The globe placed on the side of the representative sun 
nearest the North Star, with the north pole pointing towards 
the supposed North Star, will be in such a position that the 



YEARLY MOTION OF THE EARTH 415 

children can readily tell the season of the year north of 
the equator and south of the equator, if they remember 
about perpendicular and oblique rays of light. Place the 
globe on the opposite side of the sun, the axis still inclining 
as before, twenty-three and a half degrees, and ask the 
pupils to tell how the rays of light, supposed to be shining 
from the supposed sun, will strike the portion of the globe 
near the north pole ; near the United States. They will 
answer correctly. 

The next day the children can be led to see why the 
tropics are placed where they are, and also in reference to 
the Arctic circles. 

Now call their attention to the reasons for the zones, their 
characteristics, and the fact that the zones are belts. 

With this same simple apparatus, the teacher can lead the 
boys and girls to imagine when the sun will be in the zenith 
at noon to a person standing on the equator ; on the tropic 
of Cancer ; on the tropic of Capricorn. 



Change of Seasons. 

The principal effect of the revolution of the earth, togethei 
with the inclination and unvarying direction of the earth's 
axis, is the change of seasons. 

Another effect is the change in the length of day and 
night. 

A third effect is the apparent yearly motion of the sun 
through the different signs of the zodiac. 

Learn the significance of the dates, Sept. 21, Dec. 21, 
March 2t, and June 21. 



4^6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Sept. 21 the sun will be directly over the equator, the 
terrestrial hemisphere from pole to pole will correspond with 
the hemisphere of illumination, and the line of illumination 
will extend from pole to pole. Hence every parallel will be 
half lighted at once. 

Consequently day and night will be the same length 
throughout the world. The sun will rise in the true east, 
and set in the true west. 

March 21 the sun is over the equator, and the days and 
nights will be equal. 

Dec. 27 the sun will be directly over the tropic of Capri- 
corn. This tropic will be more than half lighted, and the 
day will be longer than the night to any living on that tropic. 
The, difference on the equator, Dec. 21, between day and 
night, will not be very great. But the tropic of Cancer will 
have a smaller part of the circle lighted than is not lighted, 
hence then the day will not be as long as the night. On 
the fortieth parallel north latitude, the difference will be very 
great. Dec. 21 the day is ten hours and five minutes, and 
the night is thirteen hours and fifty-five minutes. 

Dec. 21 the sun, at noon, on the fortieth parallel north 

latitude, is not very high in the heavens ; and we speak of 

^ the sun being very far to the south. The arc cut on the 

sky this day is small, and consequently the sun rises and 

sets south of the true east and west. 

Dec. 21, on the Arctic Circle, the sun will only appear at 
noon in the south, as if about to rise. Within the Arctic 
Circle no sun will be seen at this time. Darkness reigns 
supreme. 

The Arctic night in Smith Sound lasts a third of the year. 



41 8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Dr. Hayes has given several sublime descriptions of the 
darkness. 

As the south pole is turned towards the sun at this time, 
this part of the earth receives an unusually large amount 
of light and heat. The sun is now perpendicular over the 
tropic of Capricorn, and illumines a hemisphere extending 
ninety degrees south and ninety degrees north of this circle. 
Ninety degrees south will carry the light as far as the farther 
side of the Antarctic Circle. The day on this circle will be 
just twenty-four hours long. Within the circle the day will 
be more than twenty-four hours long ; and it will grow 
longer and longer till the south pole is reached, when it 
. will be six months long. At this season of the year the days 
will be longer than the nights everywhere south of the 
equator. Consequently the nights must be longer than 
the days north of the equator. 

The teacher should ask such questions as the following : — 

1. Dec. 21, what is the length of day at the Arctic Circle? 
Of the night .'» 

2. What is, then, the length of day at the equator? 

3. Dec. 30, will the day on the Antarctic Circle be 
increased or diminished in length? 

4. Is the length of day changed by changing locality on 
the same date? 

5. Is it changed by changing date at the same locality? 

6. Have many persons experienced these changes within 
the Antarctic Circle? Why not? 

7. What is the length of day on our parallel? 

June 21 the sun is directly over the tropic of Cancer. 
Persons living on that tropic will see the sun at mid-day 
directly in the zenilh. The tropic of Cancer will be more 



CHANGE OF SEASONS 419 

than half lighted, and the day will be longer than the night 
on that circle. 

On that day the fortieth north parallel will be more than 
half illumined, and consequently the day will be much 
longer than the night. The sun will rise at 4.23, and set at 
7.40, making a day of fifteen hours and seventeen minutes, 
being the longest in the year. 

At this time of the year the Arctic Circle will have 
twenty-four hours of sunlight, as the sun will not set at all. 
The northern parts of Sweden, Norway, and Russia have 
the "midnight sun" from the latter part of May till 
August. 

In Hammerfest the sun shines without interruption from 
May 16 till July 27. It does not shine so brightly at twelve 
midnight as at twelve noon. [Read Du Chaillu's Land of 
the Midnight Sun, pp. 48, 57, 61, 63, 70, and 107.] 

The appearance of the sun on the 21st of June, to a 
person standing on the Arctic Circle, is thus described by 
a Boston teacher : — 

"At midnight the sun will be at our northern horizon, and will 
move toward the east, rising above the horizon as it moves, until it 
reaches the east, when it will be twenty-three and a half degrees above 
the horizon. It will continue on toward the south, rising above the 
horizon as it moves, until it reaches its superior culmination, forty- 
seven degrees above our southern horizon, at noon. It will then 
move on toward the west, gradually sinking toward the horizon as it 
moves, until it reaches the west, twenty-three and a half degrees above 
our horizon. It will then move on, gradually sinking toward the 
horizon, until it reaches the horizon at its northern point just twenty- 
four hours after leaving it." 



420 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The Sun. 

All power seems to come directly or indirectly from the 
sun. In a physical sense he is our creator, and he keeps 
us alive from day to day. The sun caused the vegetation 
to grow ages ago. This vegetation subsequently made 
our coal ; and the coal makes the steam or electricity 
which makes our engines move. On a hot day enough 
heat is absorbed, in a Httle island, to drive, if it could 
be realized, all the steam-engines in the world. There 
is a possibility of turning this heat of the sun into direct 
power. At the last Paris exposition an extraordinary 
machine was shown, looking like an inverted umbrella 
pointing towards the sun, invented by M. Mouchat, which 
concentrated the rays of the sun on a boiler in the focus, 
and drove a steam-engine with it, which in turn drove a 
printing-press. Mr. Ericsson has invented, and is using 
now in New York, a working solar engine of still greater 
power and utility. (See Langley's New Astronomy, pp. 
108-112.) 

The Moon. 

Phases. — The teacher should draw on the board a small 
circle to represent the earth ; then draw about it a large 
circle to represent the orbit of the moon ; then draw a 
small circle at the four quarters of the large circle, to rep- 
resent the moon in these four parts of her orbit. Represent 
the light as coming from the right. The teacher then should 
ask the children to represent the hemisphere of the earth 
and the moon in these four positions, which is lighted by 
the sun's rays. After which they should be asked by the 
teacher to show in drawing how the moon would appear to 
an observer on the earth in each quarter. 



THE MOON 421 

If the children are thus led from their previous observa- 
tions of the moon's phases, and a little aid from the teacher, 
to complete this common diagram of the moon's phases, 
they will be likely to understand very clearly this monthly 
occurrence. 

Motion North and South. — The path of the full moon 
in the sky is far north, nearer the zenith, in winter, and far 
south, nearer the horizon, in summer. Hence the moon 
shines a long time in winter when needed, and a short time 
in summer. Thus the moon's path in the sky is exactly 
the reverse of the sun. 

Time of Rising. — As the moon revolves around the earth 
in one month of twenty-seven and a third days, she moves 
thirteen degrees east while the earth rotates once ; thus she 
gets thirteen degrees ahead of the earth's horizon each 
day, or twenty-four hours. The horizon of the earth moves 
at the rate of one degree in four minutes ; to catch up with 
the moon's thirteen degrees, this will take about fifty min- 
utes, so the moon rises fifty minutes later each night. But 
in September, in latitude 40°, this difference is decreased 
to twenty-five minutes. As the farmers observe and enjoy 
this more regular time of the moon's appearance, they have 
given a name to the September moon, and they call it the 
" Harvest Moon." 

Same Side. — The children can be led to observe the 
appearance of different full moons, and to notice the similar 
peculiar dark markings. This sameness is a proof that the 
same side is constantly turned towards the earth. Thus 
the moon differs from the planets or the sun. 



42 2 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

The Lifeless Moon. 

The moon is dead. It has not life enough left to ooze forth the tiniest mud volcano, 
or spurt out the feeblest geyser. No throb ever reaches its surface, and not the faint- 
est- rumble is ever echoed from its jagged mountain-sides. No earthquake wave can 
ever sweep its island shores, for earthquakes there are things of the almost infinite 
past; and the last drop of water quitted the surface of the planet a;ons ago. Its very 
atmosphere has deserted it; and if, indeed, there were a "man in the moon," he 
could never hear the sound of his own voice. But if by some means this mythical 
man could have witnessed the " Ischia disaster," and the "Java catastrophe," how he 
would have longed that any such manifestations of life were possible on his lifeless 
planet. 

There is evidence enough to show that at one period its volcanic activity must have 
been of the most stupendous kind, far exceeding any thing ever witnessed on its 
mother-earth. But that has gone with its water and its atmosphere, and taken with 
it all possibility of life. 

Tides. 

Ask the children to tell you what they have observed 
about the tides, or the periodical rising of the waters of the 
ocean. 

The ancients noticed that high tide came about one hour 
later every day, and that the moon rose about one hour later 
each day ; and they suspected some connection of cause 
and effect on account of this coincidence. 

Sir Isaac Newton first explained how the unequal attrac- 
tion of the moon on the different parts of the earth causes 
the water nearest the moon to rise towards it, and the water 
farthest from the moon to fall away. As the earth rotates, 
different parts are in turn brought nearest the moon, and 
the water is heaped up at those successive places, and also 
just opposite : hence every place has, each twenty-four 
hours, two high tides, and also two low tides. 

Let the teacher illustrate this on the board, by drawing 
first a circle to represent the earth, and supposing this to be 
covered equally and entirely with water. Then below draw 



REPRESENTATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 423 

another circle, same size, to represent the earth again. At 
right draw, three feet away, a smaller circle to represent the 
moon. Then draw — all before the class — the water, 
somewhat heaped, nearest moon, and on opposite side. 

Other diagrams can be added to show the help of the 
sun when in same line, hence spring tides ; when sun and 
moon are at right angles with the earth, the tide will be 
unusually low, or neap tide. The difference between spring 
and neap tides in New- York harbor is two feet. The aver- 
age tide in New York is four and a half feet ; in Boston, nine 
to ten feet ; in mid-ocean, three and a half feet. In the Bay 
of Fundy, owing to its tunnel shape, it rises to seventy feet. 
In Venice, the tide rises only eighteen inches. On Lake 
Superior, only one inch. 

Representation of the Solar System. 

Signer Perini of London has thought out an ingenious method of showing the 
arrangement and movements of the earth and planets. The upper part of an ordinary 
room is changed to a blue dome sprinkled with stars, the constellations of the zodiac 
being arranged around the base of the dome. Suspended from the centre of the dome 
by a narrow tube is a glass globe, lighted with gas, to represent the sun. The planets 
with their moons, Saturn with its rings, are also suspended at appropriate distances, 
each inclined to the plane of its orbit, and each the proper size. By means of clock- 
work, the planets move noiselessly around the sun in their proper elliptical orbits. 
By ingenious watchwork arrangement inside, the earth turns upon its axis, and the 
moon revolves around it. 

Another e.xcellent means of representing the same to the eye, is by the CoSMO- 
srHERE invented by Professor F. H. Bailey, Boston. This instrument shows the 
heavens as seen from any part of the earth, and the movements of sun, moon, and 
stars. 

3. Reading and Talking. 

[The teacher will find plenty of material for outside instruction and illustration in 
the following books.] 

Tides. Sharpless and Philips's Astronomy, p. 122. 
How the Moon causes Eclipses. Science Primers : Lockyer'a 
Astronomy, p. 45. 



424 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Star Depths Proctor's Our Place among Infinities, p. 182. 

Saturn. Proctor's Our Place ainong hifinities, p. 128. 

A Dream. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. i. 

The Sun. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. 11. 

The Queen of Night. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. 20. 

Jupiter's Families of Moons. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. 85. 

The Flight of Light. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. 202. 

Colored Suns. Proctor's Expanse of Heaven, p. 221. 

The First Predicted Eclipse, by O. M. Mitchell, p. 109, in Five- 
Minute Recitations. 

Half Hours zvith the Stars, by Richard A. Proctor. 

Land of the Midnight Sun, by Du Chaillu. Vol. i. pp. 48, 57, 61, 
63, 70, and 107. 

The Sun's Energy. The New Astronomy, by Professor S. P. 
Langley, chaps, iii. and iv. 

The Moon's Surface. Proctor's Moon, pp. 185-190. Published by 
Appleton & Co. 

Note. — The many students of astronomical geography, living in or near Boston, 
have at their disposal, for a dime each, a good telescope, always found on the Com- 
mon. This instrument has a nine-inch aperture, and shows with good effect, each 
in its appropriate season, the sun, moon, Jupiter, Saturn, Venus, double stars, etc. 
Many of the classes in high schools, and in private schools, regularly avail themselves 
of the use of this instrument. 

Suggestive Questions. 

1. What is the present appearance of the moon ? 

2. When does it rise to-night.'' 

3. When and where do you generally first see the new moon "i 

4. Is twilight as long here as in Quebec .'' 

5. At what time of the year does the sun rise towards the south ? 
towards the north ? 

6. How can a person find the true north, if he has his watch and 
the sun shines ? 

7. What line on the map is indicated by the noon-day shadow .'' 

8. Of what practical use aie parallels and meridians ? 



CHAPTER XIX 
SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 



He picked something out of every thing he read. — Pliny. 

What is twice read, is commonly better remembered than what is 
transcribed. — yohnson. 

425 



SOURCES FOR CONSULTATION 



Private and Public libraries, magazines, and newspapers. 
426 



CHAPTER XIX 
SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 

harper's magazine — BOUND VOLUMES OF THE SAME — OTHER SOURCES — SPECIAL 
SOURCES — REPORTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES — IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL 
SUBJECTS IN IMPORTANT BOOKS — POEMS OF PLACES — SIBERIA — MONT BLANC 
— IMPORTANT POEMS SELECTED — PLACE-NAMES 

THESE sources, in general, are found abundantly in books 
of travel, magazines, newspapers, geographical readers, 
books of reference, such as gazetteers, encyclopaedias, etc. 
A full list of the best of these is given in the next chapter. 

If the teacher desires to find information upon some 
particular subject, such as vv^ould interest a class in a gram- 
mar school, giving more details than books of reference, 
we refer him to Harpe7-''s Monthly Magazine, and to the 
recently published index to the same, giving the contents 
in full, from vol. i. to vol. Ixx. (1886). 

To show what a wealth of geographical information is 
here at hand, let us turn to some topic likely to be called 
for by a wide-awake teacher, as, for instance, India. In 
Harper's, there will be found on this subject thirty fully 
illustrated articles, by such well-known writers as J. H. 
Brown, James Parton, W. S. Stuart, Col. Thomas W. Knox, 
A. H. Guernsey, C. T. Brooks, and others. The special 
subjects treated are Benares, Bombay, Calcutta, Cashmere 
Valley, Himalayas, Land of the White Elephant, Madras, 
Taj Mahal, Tiger Hunting, etc. 

427 



428 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Harper's Magazine for May, 1888, 

contains, " London as a Literary Centre," " A Winter in 
Algiers," "Studies of the Great West," "Chicago," "Russian 
Convicts in the Salt-mines of Siberia," "The City of 
Denver." All these articles are beautifully illustrated. 

Below are given the titles of interesting articles in the late 
bound numbers of Harper 's Magazine : — 

(The numbers here, and elsewhere in this chapter, refer 
to pages in the respective volumes.) 

Vol. LXVL, December, i8S2-Afaj, 1883. — Arizona, 489; The 
Brooklyn Bridge, 925 ; The Columbia River, 3 ; Southern California, 
45; English Farmers, 651; Havre, 28; Holland, 165, 387, 520; San 
Francisco, 813; The Welsh Coast, 327. 

Fo/. LXVII., June to November, 1883. — Alleghanies, 327 ; Can- 
ada, 375; Spain, 32, etc.; The Catskills, 521; Cincinnati, 245; 
London, 828; Hiawatha, 68. 

Vol. LXVIII., December, 1883-^?^, 1884. — Bank of England, 
885; Canada, 392; Frazer to the Columbia, 706, 869; Florida, 598; 
West Highlands, 63; Mentone, 189, 367; St. Louis, 497; Upper 
Thames, 335. 

Vol. LXIX., June to November, 1884. — Boston Harbor, 352, 
Columbia College, 813; New- York Custom House, 38; Holland, 
327, 523, etc.; Lake Superior, 103; The Nile, 165; Queenstown, 
489; Salt Lake City, 388; Sheffield, 67; Sierra Madra, 747; St. 
Lawrence, 197 ; Columbia River, 500. 

Vol. LXX., December, \Z'i\,-May, 18S5. — Cape-Ann Quarries, 
549; Florida, 216; A Pair of Shoes, 273; London, 857; Pullman, 
452; Rio Grande, 687; Washington, 520; Hennequen Plant, 372. 

Vol. LXXI , June to Novefnber, 1885, — Bogota, 47; Buffalo, 193; 
Guatemala, 886; Hartford, 715; A Silk Dress, 240, Labrador, 489, 
etc. ; India Architecture, 165 ; Ottawa, 327 ; English and American 
Railways, 375. 

Vol. LXXIL, December, 188^-May, 1886. — Africa's Awakening, 
546 i Afghan Boundary Commission, 595; Blue-Grass Region of 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 429 

Kentucky, 365; Cape Breton Folk, 607; Cattle-raising on the 
Plains, 788; Cleveland, 561; Kuff's Establishment, 495; British 
Navy, 333; Persia, 217. 

Fol. LXX/II., June to November, 18S6. — Central Engine of the 
Solar System, 625; Detroit, 327; Cumberland Gap, 50; Docks in 
United States, 616; Salem, 602; A Lump of Sugar, 72; United- 
States Artillery, 779. 

For more information from bound volumes of this and 
Dther magazines, we refer the reader to Poole's Index. 

Other sources of recent knowledge will be found in the 
following : Harper 'jt Weekly, The Century, Petermann 's 
Mitteilungen (German), Scribncr's, Popular Science, Over 
hind Monthly, The Atlantic, and the best daily newspapers. 

Recent geographical knowledge is furnished week by 
week, for the schoolroom, by The IVeeh's Current, published 
by E. O. Vaile, Chicago, 111. ; and the School Herald, pub- 
lished by W. I. Chase, Chicago. The Intelligence, by E. O. 
Vaile, also contains much geographical information ; so 
does The Fountain, by W, H. Shelley, York, Penn. 

Special Sources for Special Iiit'oriiiatiou. 

For Arctic regions, consult Greely's Three Years of 
Arctic Service, Nourse's American Explorations, Hayes's 
Open Polar Sea. 

For Greenland, consult Professor Rink's Greenland. 

The best physical maps are found in Guyot's and Warren's 
geographies. 

The best political maps are in Warren's, Barnes's, and 
Harper's. 

The best treatment of South .A^merica is in Appletons'. 

The best representations of continental relief will be found 
in Barnes's. 



430 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

McNally's Geography contains invaluable foot-notes. 

Johnston's Descriptive Geography and Richardson's 
Manual of Geography contain needed information, arranged 
by topics. 

The best condensed and well-illustrated treatment of 
astronomical geography is given in Barnes's Complete 
Geography. 

For a fuller account, see Jackson's Astronomical Geogra- 
phy, pubhshed by Heath & Co. Johonnot's Geographical 
Reader is well adapted for the graduating class, and full of 
important general information. 

Apple ton's Encyclopaedia and Lippincott's Gazetteer sup- 
ply full and accurate information to date of publication. 

Guyot's Physical Geography is the best single text-book 
for grammar-school teachers. 

Our World No. 2 has many good descriptions of the 
people. 

Knox's ^^T)^ Travellers (12 vols.) is the best juvenile book 
of travel. 

Seven Little Siste?'s, by Miss Andrews, is one of the most 
popular supplementary readers for the lowest classes. 

The Consular Reports issued by the United-States Gov- 
ernment, Department of State, contain the most recent 
information in reference to foreign countries. 

Abercromby's Weather contains the most recent knowl- 
edge, founded on signal-station reports. 

The best geographical encyclopaedias are Stanford's Com- 
pendium (6 vols.) and Reclus's Earth and its Inhabitants 
(15 vols). Superbly illustrated. 

The best book on teaching moulding and relief is Frye's 
Geography and Sand Modelling. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 43 1 

The best book on commerce is Yeats's Recent and Exist- 
ing Commerce. 1888. 

Brown's Manual of Commerce is a smaller book of four 
hundred pages, well arranged, and adapted to school pur- 
poses .Published in 1871. 

The American Almanac by Spofiford, Congressional libra- 
rian, published every March, is invaluable for reliable statis- 
tics. 

The Pocket Atlas of the World (twenty-five cents) con- 
tains much important and reliable information useful for the 
schoolroom. 

The Annual Report on the Commerce and Navigation of 
th^ United States, by the Treasury Department, Washington, 
contains statistics of great value, and much interesting 
information. 

One of the most helpful books on methods of teaching 
geography is Miss Crocker's. 

Around the World by Prime, Due West by Ballon, Over 
the Ocean by Guild, contain the exact information each 
teacher needs to use in the schoolroom. 

Reports of the Geographical Societies. 

There are nearly sixty of these societies in the world, 
including one in Algeria and one in Japan. The oldest is 
the French Geographical Society of Paris, established in 
1821 ; the largest and the most influential is the Royal 
Geographical Society of London. The American Geographi- 
cal Society is fifth in size. These societies pubhsh a hundred 
and twenty-six different periodicals, usually called reports. 
The reports of the American, Royal, French, German, and 
Russian are full of valuable information, as may be judged 
by the epitomes given below. 



432 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

To show the value and richness of these reports, we give 
a few of the subjects treated in recent numbers : — 

Reports of the Royal Geographical Society, London, for 1886. — 
From Cape Town to Lake Nyassa, 65 ; Notes on Mount Everest, 88 ; 
Arctic Explorations, 156; Korea, 289; Physical Geography of Brazil, 
353; In Kalahari, 437; Burma, 481; Congo Free State, 609; River 
Systems of South India, 681. Many valuable maps. 

American Geographical Society, Vols. XIV. and XV., for 1882-8J. 
Part I : Siberia, by George Kennan, i ; The Gulf Stream, by Com- 
modore J. R. Bartlett, 69 ; Lake Moeris, by F. C. Whitehouse, 
85 ; Explorations of the River Bene, South America, by Dr. E. R. 
Heath, 117; The New Germany, by President White, 205; Travels 
in Sweden, etc., by Du Chaillu, 285. Part 2 : Dutch South Africa, 
by Col. Aylword, i; The Philippine Islands, by S. Kneeland, jt,; 
Currents of the Pacific Ocean, by Th. Antisell, loi ; The Valley of 
the Loire, 215; Southern Russia, George Kennan, 289; The Political 
Geography of Egypt, by C. P. Stone, 361. 

American Geographical Society, Vols. XVI. and XVII., for 1884-8^. 
— Vol. XVI.: The Growing Power of the Republic of Chili, i 
Recent Developments in Central Africa, and in Congo Valley, 89 
Life and Scientific Works of Guyot, 194; Cumberland Sound, 241 
Norway and the Midnight Sun, 273; Yukon River, 343. Vol. XVII. 
Nomenclature in United States, i ; How the Settlement of North 
America has affected its Wild Animals, 17 ; Life and Scenery in the 
Far North, 79; Julianshaab, 85; War in the Soudan, 125; Rocky- 
Mountain Railroads, 299. 

SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOUND IN BOOKS 

This is rather a suggestive, than an exhaustive, hst. 
The names of many valuable books are omitted for lack 
of space. If each teacher will spend a few moments in 
writing and indexing such a list as fast as he reads, he will, 
in a short time, have a valuable catalogue of subjects. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 433 

North America. 

The Homes of America. Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. 1S79. — Roger 
Morris House, 16; Van Rensselaer, 32; Sir William Pepperell, 41 ; 
Quincy Mansion, 48; John Howard Payne, 54; Mount Vernon, 65; 
Gen. Charles Lee, 71 ; Montgomery Place, 102 ; Old Morrisania, no; 
William H. Morris, 121; Cedarmere (Bryant), 131; Longfellow, 134; 
Klmwood (Lowell), 139; Emerson, 142; .Sunnyside (Irving), 153; 
Idlewild (Willis), 166; Mrs. Samuel Colt, 178; H. Cabot Lodge 
(Nahant), 184; Francis Parkman, 193; H. H. Hunnewell (Wellesley), 
197; Charlotte Cushman, 203; George E. Waring, jun. (Newport), 
207; Cedarcroft (Taylor), 212. 

The Great Sourn. Ed. King. 1875. — ^^^^ Orleans, 2S-67 ; 
Levee System, 67; Texas, 99; St. Louis and Missouri, 215-257; Life 
on Cotton Plantation, 297 ; Florida and St. Augustine, 38 3-422 ; 
Virginia, 621 ; Mammoth Cave, 699. 

Santo Domingo. .S". Hazard. — Extent, Peculiarities, etc., i ; 
History, 18-132; Toussaint, 133; Samana, 195; St. Domingo City, 
212 ; Journey Overland, 274-318; Hayti, 402-441, 

Newfoundland. Joseph Hatton. 1SS3. — Part i. History; 2, 
Physical Geography ; 3, The Fisheries ; 4, Agricultural Resources ; 
5, Mineral Resources; 6, Population, etc. St. Johns, 147; The 
Interior, 168; Climate, 188; Manners and Customs, 222; Caribou, 
etc., 230; The Cod, 280; Seal, 295; Salmon, 317; Other Fisheries, 
323; Coal Areas, 414 ; Population, 428; Education, 457. 

The West, from the Census of 18S0. Rohci-t P. Porter. 1882. 
— The Prairie States, 9; The Territories, 79; The Pacific States, 94; 
Colored diagrams showing grain and forest products, metals, etc., of 
this part of the United States compared with the world, 13-68. 

History of the Northern Pacific Railroad. E. V. Smalley. 
1883. (Published by Putnam. Very well illustrated with pictures 
from photos.) — Part i, Historical: Search for the Source of the 
Mississippi, Expeditions of Long and Pike, 5 ; Capt. Gray and Ship 
Columbia, Discovery of Columbia River, 12; Lewis and Clarke 
Expedition, 20; Fur Traders, etc., 33; Marcus Whitman's Heroic 
Ride, His Death, 46. Part 2, The Northern Pacific Country: Lake 
Parts, 309; Northern Minnesota, 321 ; North Dakota, 330; Montana, 



434 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

341 ; Idaho and Washington Territory, 351 ; Oregon, 361 ; Portland 
and Puget Sounds, 370. Part 3, Detailed Account of the History 
Beginning, and Completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad, 51 ; 
Henry Villard, 245. 

Our Wild Indians. Col. R. I. Dodge. 1882. — Indian Habits in 
Different Tribes : Traits and Peculiarities, 42-67 ; Treaty System, 87 ; 
Religion of the Indian, 96; The Medicine Chief, 114; Self-Torture, 
146; Funereal Ways, 153-167; Indian's Heaven, 175; Childhood and 
Youth, 181; Love-Making, 190; Women, 200; Skill, 250; Clothing, 
297; Dances, 356; Weapons, 415; Fighting, 435-540; Adventures 
and Experience and Anecdotes. 

Natural Resources of the United States. J. H. Patton. 
1888. (D. Appleton & Co.). — Coal, 10-48; Petroleum, 108; Iron, 
120; Gold, 160; Silver, 176; Copper, 193; Other Metals, 211; 
Building-Stones, 276; Salt, 308; Medicinal Springs, 325; Rainfall 
and Climate, 348; The Mississippi Valley, 378; Wheat-Belt, 395; 
Timber, 413; Fruits, 439; Ocean Resources : Fish, 478. 

Danish Greenland. Dr. Rink. — Good Maps, Some Good 
Pictures, General Physical Features, 39, 64; Climate, 56; Resources, 
75; Seals and Whales, Fish, iii, 131 ; Inhabitants, 176; Trade, 280; 
Glaciers, 357. 

The Open Polar Sea. Dr. Hayes. — Sunrise, Glacier, 127; 
Aurora Borealis, chap, xvi.; Arctic Night, 222; Midwinter, 192. 

Three Years of Arctic Service. A. W. Greely. — Vol. I. : 
International Circumpolar Stations, 19; Greenland, 25; Fort Conger, 
87, 180; Sunlight to Darkness, 115 ; Scientific Observations, 124; Our 
First Dark Days (on the glacier), 284; The Farthest North, 347. 
Photographs: Eskimo in Kayak, i; Musk-o.x, 104; Godthoab, 19; 
Greenland Coast near Godhave, 25 ; Arctic Belles, 32 ; Upernavik, 34, 
56; Icebergs, 294; Musk-calves, 363; Photograph of the Expedition 
North, 260; Luna Halo, 187. Vol. II: Crossing Grinnell Land, 27; 
Great Glacier, 40 ; Polar Ice, 43 ; Retreat, 61 ; Rescue of the Seven, 
312 ; Foxes, Musk-ox, etc., 361. Valuable Pictures : Block of Ice, 51 ; 
Split Floeberg, 84 ; Cape Washington, i ; Pyramid Floeberg, 54. 

American Explorations in the Ice Zones. J. E. N'ourse. — 
Condensed account of Kane, Rodgers, Hayes, Hall, Schwatka, and 
De Long. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 435 

Journeys in Alaska. E. R. Scidmore, Illinois. — Fort Wrangell 
and the Stikine, 46; Juneau, 81 ; Muir Glacier, 131 : Sitka, 174-214; 
Education in Alaska, 229; Sealskins, 300; Totem Poles, 53; Pictures 
of the Muir Glacier, 137, 144, 147. 

American Pictures. Rr..'. S. Manning. (Published by Nelson 
& Co., New York. Price $3.50. A series, 16 vols.). — Pictures of 
Denver and Colorado, 33-60 ; Salt Lake, etc., 61-82 ; Nevada, 83-91 ; 
San Francisco, 93-102; Mount Shasta, 103; Yosemite, 107-127; 
Yellowstone, 127-137; Chicago, 141-149; Niagara, 156-163; New- 
York City, 188-202; Vassar College, 209; Capitol, Washington, 
223; Court House, Philadelphia, 220. 

Camps in the Caribbees. Ober. — Dominica, i; Tropic Sea, 3; 
Tropic and Humming Birds, 12-40; Habits of the People, -jT), 90; 
Deep Woods, 130; Bugs, 147; Sugar Estate, 229; Monkeys, 263; 
Martinique, 280; Coffee in the West Indies, 332. 

The Heart of the Alleghanies; or. North- Western 
Carolina. W. G. Zeigler and B.S. Grosscnp. — Native Mountaineers, 
15; Natural Resources, 167 

The Atlantic Islands {Illustrated). Benjamiji. — Bahamas., 
13; Bermudas, 161 ; Newfoundland, 146; Prince Edward Island, 188; 
Cape Breton Island, 222 ; Isle of Wight, 234 ; Isles of Shoals, 205 : 
Azores, 33; Madeira, 94; Teneriffe, 121 ; Channel Islands, 57. 

Fifth Avenue to Alaska. Ed. Pierrepont. — Mormon City and 
the Mormons, 17 ; Yosemite Valley, 58 ; Big Trees, 69 ; San Francisco, 
43, 90, 97 ; Columbia River, 1 10, 224 ; Victoria to Alaska, 141 ; Alaska, 
149, 217; Yellowstone Park, 237, 249; Livingstone to St. Paul, 312. 

Travels in Mexico. F. A. Ober. 1884. — General Description 
of Mexico, 194 ; Temperate Zone, 197 ; Ascent from Vera Cruz, 201 ; 
City of Mexico, 221; Mexican People, 2S1, etc.; Chapultepec, 355; 
Profile of the Country, 195; Cold Zone, 198; Coffee, 205; Funeral 
by Horse-car for Three Dollars, 266; Maguey or Century Plant, 342; 
Popocatapetl, 373. 

A Trip to Manitoba. Mary Fitzgibbon. 1880. — Winnipeg 
Indians, 40-41; Red River at Winnipeg, 45; Cold, 61 ; Lake of the 
Woods, ICO; Mail, 117; October, 51; Vegetables, 52; Breaking up 
of the Ice, 69; Flies and Mosquitoes, 114; Indians in Ojibbeway 
Village, 185. 



43^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Due South. M. M. Bal/ou.—'Na.ssa.u, 3; San Salvador, 24; 
Cuba, a Sugar Plantation, 50, 236 ; The Banana, 55 ; Geography of 
Cuba, 102; Havana, 125, 200; Tobacco, 260. 

South America. 

Across Patagonia. Lady Dixie. — Pernambuco, 10; Rio, 15-27; 
Sandy Point, 33; Ostrich-hunting, 112 ; Bahia, 12 ; Straits of Magellan, 
28; Appearance of Patagonian Indians, 66; Patagonian Cordilleras, 
174, 190-200. 

Peru. Squier. — Callao, 26-31; Lima, 34-61. Descriptions and 
Pictures of the Ruins : Arequipa (picture of Grand Plaza) 223 ; Are- 
quipa and Volcano of Mesti, 224 ; Arica (picture), 228; Llama (pic- 
ture), 246; Andes (picture), 248; Female Head-dress, 262, 305; Illam- 
pee- (the Crown of the Andes), 268; Lake Titicaca, 316, 327, 342, 343, 
346 ; Cuzco, 426; Bridge in the Andes, 545 ; Hanging Bridge, 558, 559. 

The Amazon and its Tributaries. C. Barrington Brown. — 
Para, i; Up the Amazon, 12; Insect Pests, 75; Surveying on the 
Tapajos, 158; On the Madeira, 327; On the Rio Negro, 360; The 
Purus, 418. 

La Plata, — The Argentine Confederation and Paraguay. 
Thomas y. Page. (Fully illustrated.) — Arrival at Buenos Ayres. 35 ; 
Ascent of the La Plata, 64 ; The Town of Parana, 89 ; Ascencion, 1 16 ; 
Concepcion, 136; Indians Fishing, 253; Mate, 227; The Uruguay 
River, 318. 

Brazil, the Amazon, and the Coast. H. H. Smith. — Para, 
34 ; The River-plain, 78 ; American Farmers on the Amazon, 135 
The Forest, 176; Zoological Gleanings, 205; The North Shore, 257 
The Tapajos, 226 ; An Indian Village, 370 ; Social Life at Rio, 451 
The Story of Coffee, 511; The Tributaries of the Amazon, 588 
Bahia, 448. 

Wild Scenes in South-American Life, in the Llanos of 
Venezuela. Don R. Paez. — The Llanos, 26; Wild Horses, 74; 
Across the Pampas, 85; Birds of Ill-omen, 163; Plants and Snakes, 
202; The Armadillo, 245; The Great Ant-eater, 257; Young Croco- 
dile, 269; Maracaibo, 388. 



SOURCES OK INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 437 

Africa. 

Heart of Africa. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. — VoL I. : Home of the 
Watermelon, Cat, and Ass, 61 ; Dogs and Animals, 91 ; Market, 102 ; 
Dinka, 150; Corpulence of the Women, 256. Vol. H. : Habits of 
Niam-Niam, i ; King Munza's Wives, 48; Colanut, 49; The Pigmies, 
122; Slave-dealers, 410. 

The Wild Tribes of the Soudan. F. L. James. 1883. Con- 
tains experiences and adventures in hunting by a party of rich Eng- 
lishmen in the Eastern or Egyptian Soudan (Nubia). Describes 
the country and the people of the Base and that section. It con- 
tains several excellent maps of this country. Cassala, 42 ; Cassala 
Natives, 54 ; Walkit Minstrel, 70 ; Base, 86 ; The Mareb at Rest, 92 ; 
Lion and Lioness, 226. 

The Congo. H. M. Stanley. (2 vols. Harpers'.) — Vol. I. : Polit- 
ical History of Congo Land, 9; Dutch Factories on Congo, 81 ; Boma, 
96; New Town Vivi, 109, 140; Making a Road up the River around 
the Cataracts, 195; Stanley Pool, 281; Signal of the Gong, 339; 
Discovery of Lake Leopold H. up the Kiva, 410; Founding of Leo- 
poldville near .Stanley Pool, 357. Vol. H. (much more valuable and 
interesting): Scenery of the Upper Congo, 5; Luxuriant Tropica] 
Scenes, 91; Skill in Metal-working, iii; Enormous Flotilla of 
Canoes, 137; Arab Captives, 145; Stanley Falls, 155; Binnie ap- 
pointed, 165; Climate (two chapters), 280, 312; The Chief Points, 

339- 

Exploration and Adventure in Africa. Chay-les H. Jones. 
(Condensed accounts. 1875. English edition.) — Madagascar, 35; 
Barth and Richardson, 61 ; Livingstone, 87 ; Andersson, 152 ; Magyar, 
171; Du Chaillu, 184; Burton and Speke, 23S; Speke and Grant, 
267 ; Sir Samuel Baker, 292 ; Livingstone, 335 ; .Stanley and Living- 
stone, 355; Schweinfurth, 419; Moffat, 471. 

Across Africa. Verney L. Cameron. 1877. — Vol. L : Zanzibar, 
I ; Leaving, 22 ; An Arab Caravan, 47 ; Baobab-trees, 49 ; Camp, 64 , 
Death of Moffat, 71; Tembe, 87; Native Fashions, 97; Witchcraft, 
117 ; The People, 139; Mtesa, 147 ; Sickness, 161 ; Native Huts, 191 ; 
Ujiji, 236; Musical Instruments, 357. Vol. II.: Nyangwe, i; A Visit 
in State, 20; Hostilities, 39 ; Kasongo, 64 ; Marriage Ceremony, 74; 



43^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Customs of the People, 117 ; The Neat Villages on the Kwanza, 196; 
Bailunda, 225; Reaching the Coast, 261; Geography of Africa, 
281-319. 

Modern Egyptians. Lane-Poole. (Published by John Murray, 
London.) — Vol. I.: Climate, i ; Dress, 36; Personal Characteristics, 
31; Infancy and Early Education, 65; Religion and Laws, 79; 
Domestic Life, 167; Life of the Women, igi ; Common Usages of 
Society, 250; Language and Literature, 261; Superstitions, 281-330; 
Character, 348. Vol. II. : Industry, i ; Drinks and Smoking, 30 ; The 
Bath, 36; Games, 46; Music, 57; Tricks, 93; Public Festivals, 145; 
Death and Funeral Rites, 251. 

Land of the Pharaohs. Manning. (Well illustrated.) — 
Cleopatra's Needles, 16; Pompey's Pillar, 16; Sakieh and Shadoaf, 
24 ; Nilometer, 42 ; Tombs of the Caliphs, 45 ; Pyramids, 50 ; Nile 
Boat, 67 ; Map of Nile, 81 ; Doura Palm (papyrus), 91 ; Denderah, 
106; Thebes, 109; Rameseum, no; Medinet-Abou, 115; Colossi, 
116; Karnak, 120; Tombs of the Kings, 124; Shishak and Reho- 
boam, 125; Assouan, 140; Suez Canal, 177; Sinai, 198. 

Attractions of the Nile. Rev. Alfred C.Smith. (2 vols.) — 
Vol. I.: Alexandria, 17; Cairo, 32; Mosques, 51 ; Excursion to the 
Pyramids, 73; The Nile Boat, 139; Up the River, 162; Keneh and 
Ballas, 197; Thebes, 204. Vol. II.: The Sheiks of the Cataracts, i; 
Philse, 19 ; Nubian Villages, 33 ; Going down the Cataracts, 73 ; 
Scenery of the Nile, 178; Birds in Egypt, 197. 

Through Masai Land (Mount Kenia, etc.) Joseph Thomson. 
1885. (Sampson Low & Co., London. Well illustrated.) — Taveta 
(important place), 117 ; Picture of Kenia, 384 ; Sport, 238; Monkeys, 
317; Buffalo-hunting, 372; A Forest Fastness, 207; Kilimanjaro, 
163, 220, 275; Two Fine Pictures of Kilimanjaro, 220, 275; Spitting, 
290; Zebra, 335. 

Tunis. Chevalier de Hesse. 1882. (Wartegg.) — The Palaces of 
the Bey, 't^i '■> Army and Navy, 56; Life and Customs of Good Society 
in Tunis, 68; Life in a Moorish Harem, 81; Through the Bazaars, 
97; Jewish Women, 124; The Environs of Tunis, 170; Habits and 
Life of the Berbers, 208; The Bedouins, 243; Woman's Life, 256; 
Gabes, 272. 

Forestry of West Africa. A. Moloney. 1887. (English edi- 



SOURCES OK INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 439 

tion.) — Importance of West Africa to Trade, 33; Rublen, 78; Coffee, 
96; Gums and Resins, 118; Dyewoods, 136; Cotton, 140; Indigo, 
153; Tobacco, 169; Fibres, 180; Wood and Timber, 197. 

To THE Cape for Diamonds. F. Boyle. — Cape Town to the 
Diamond Fields, 44; History of the Diamond Fields, 84; Diamond 
Towns, 106; Manner of Digging, 123; How the People live there, 
138; Riots, 180 ; An African Farmhouse, 291; African Diamonds, 
357- 

Asia. 

Due West. M. M. Ballon. — China, S1-125; Ceylon, 125-150; 
India, 150-223; Himalayas, 175-184; Japan, 30-81. 

The Middle Kingdom. 6". W. Williatns. (2 vols. Fully illus- 
trated.) — Vol. I.: General Divisions, i; China Proper, 8; The 
Great Wall, 29 ; Eastern Provinces, 49 ; Temples of Heaven, and 
Agriculture, 76; Roads, 97; Western Provinces, 142; Manchuria, 
185; Mongolia, 200; Tibet, 237; Population, 258 ; Laws, 380 ; Edu- 
cation, 519; Dress and Diet, 724; Social Life, 782. Vol. II.: Horse- 
shoeing, 4; Rice, 5; Hemp, 11 ; Silk, 32; Science, 65; Religion, 
188; Commerce, 372; History, 406-690. A comprehensive and ac- 
curate presentation of the race characteristics, social economy, 
religion, literature and history of the Chinese. (Published by 
Scribner's Sons.) 

China. Charles H. Eden. — Its Geography, 9; Physical Aspect 
of China Proper, 17; History, 28-54; Modern History, 56; The 
Emperor, 94; Prisons, etc., 106; Army, 122; Religions of China, 
126; The Great Wall, 138; Peking, 147 ; Personal Appearance and 
Dress, 159; Domestic Habits, 174; Opium Smokers, 200; Medical 
Profession, 238 ; Agriculture, 254. 

Indo-China, AND China. J. Thomson. (Well illustrated.) — 
Straits of Malacca, i ; Singapore, 55 ; Chinese Tailors, Thieves, 63 ; 
Domestic Servants, 69 ; Siam, 78 ; Cambodia, 118; Elephant Travel- 
ling, 135; Sargon, 164; Hongkong, 179; Chinese Photographers, 
189; Gambling, 197, A Typhoon, 214; Tea-tasters, 237; Canton, 
242; Signboards, 249; A Beautiful Chinese House, 255 ; Dwellings 
of the Poor, 263; Boat-women, 267; A Chinese Junk, 270; Macao, 
275; Fan-painting, 281; Amoy, 289; Formosa, 299; Bamboo, 317; 



440 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Beggars, 359; Punishment for Stealing, 364; A Travelling Black- 
smith, 385 ; Shanghai, 397 ; Chinese Wheelbarrow, 409 ; Hankow, 
427; Fishing with Otters, 443; A Gorge, Upper Yangtsze, 454; Silk, 
472; Peking, 481; Chinese Horse-shoeing, 505; The Temple oi 
Heaven, 507 ; One of the Inner Gates of Peking, 496 ; Chinesa 
Gentleman's Gardens, 520. 

Indian Pictures. Rev. Urwick. (Profusely illustrated. Pub- 
lished by Nelson & Co., New York. Price $3.50.) — Ceylon, 11; 
Singalese Men and Women, 12, 13; Kandy, 26; Cocoanut-Palms, 38; 
Madras Presidency, 41 ; Grand Pagoda, 40, 43, 49 ; Christian Native 
Girls, 46 ; Madura, 52, 53, 56 ; Madras Surf, 85 ; Gateway at Secun- 
dra, 155; Railroad Bridge, 157; Delhi, 161; Temple, 160; Fort by 
Shah Jehan, 163; Great Mosque, 164; Mosque of Koutub, 165; Iron 
Pillar, 167; Minor Koutub, 168; Sacred Hill Sonaghur, 191; Brah- 
min,, 91; Bengal, 95; Juggernaut, 94; Maidan Calcutta, 103; Reli- 
gious Mendicant, 106; Kinchinjinga, 112; Bullock Carriage, 124; 
Benares, 131 ; Hindoo Temples, 130; Fakir, 132, 135; Lucknow, 140; 
Howdahs on Elephants, 144; Residency, 145; Memorial Well, 149; 
Agra Fort, 150; Taj Mahal, 151; Palace, 152; Pearl Mosque, 153; 
Bombay, 195. 

Land of the Veda. Rev. William Butler. — Architectural 
Magnificence of India (Taj Mahal), loi ; Sepoy Rebellion, 170; 
Cawnpore Massacre, 293; Relief of Lucknow, 319; Condition of 
Women under Hindoo Law, 468. 

Malacca, Indo-China, and China. J. Thomson. — Siam, 
Buddhist Temples and Priests, 78; Hong Kong, 179; Canton, 242; 
Formosa, 300; Upper Yangtsze Hankow, Gorges, 397. 

The Hindoos as They are. S. C.Bose. — The Hindoo Flouse- 
hold, I ; Birth of the Hindoo, 22; Schoolboy, 30; Hindoo Girl, 35; 
Marriage Ceremonies, 41 ; Doorga Poojah Festival, 93 ; Caste, 165 ; 
A Brahmin, 180; Native Physician, 209; Hindoo Women, 216; 
Hindoo Widows, 237; Sickness and Death, 246; Suttee, 272. 

The Mikado's Empire. Griffis. — Jinrikisha, 334; Avenue 
in Tokio, 395 ; Life in Japanese Homes, 435 ; Servants, 430 ; A 
Wedding Party, 438; Father and Children, 450; Children's 
Games and Sports, 452 ; A Common House, 532 ; The Position of 
Women, 551. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 44 1 

Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. 3fiss Bird. — Customs and Dress. 
2,2), 151; Worship and Buddhism, 64, 212; A Japanese House, 107; 
Domestic Life, 131; Evening Employments, 141; The Shops, 225; 
Food, 237; A Japanese Doctor, 274; A Wedding Ceremony, 323, 
Children's Games, 372 ; A Japanese School, 132. 

CoREA, THE Hermit Nation. Griffis. — Social Life (Woman 
and Family), 244; Child-Life, 256; Housekeeping and Costume, 262; 
Out-door Life, 284 ; Education and Culture, 337. 

Turkestan. E. Schuyler. (2 vols. Illustrated.) — The Steppe, i- 
Tashkent, 76; Mussulman Life, 118; The Bazaars and Trade, 173; 
Samarkand, 225; Street in Tashkent, loi ; Women of Samarkand, 
266; Kirghiz Women, 36. 

Ceylon, y. Ferguson. — Extent and Topographical Features, 8 ; 
Progress of Seventy Years, 24 ; Products, 38 ; Attractions for the 
Traveller, 103; A Cocoanut Plantation, 38. 

Through Persia. Arnold. — A Persian Village, 185; Teheran, 
212; Kashan, 287; Ispahan, 309. 

Europe. 

Spanish Vistas. Lathrop. — Bull Fights, 26-32; Toledo, 34-69; 
Cordova, 70-102; Seville, 103-117; Mediterranean Ports, 152; Hints 
to Travellers, 1S6; Escorial, 25. 

Seven Spanish Cities. E. E. Hale. — Cordova, 40; Seville, 56; 
Palos and Columbus, 71; Cadiz and Malaga, 80; Granada and 
Alhambra, 93; Madrid, 218, 155; Spanish Politics, 182, 166; Toledo, 
206 ; Out-doors Life, 228 ; Northward, 263, 279. 

Over the Ocean. Cnrtis Guild. — Hints to Tourists, i ; The 
Emerald Isle, 11 ; Liverpool, 28; Edinburgh, 47; Glasgow, 80; 
York, 89; Kenilworth, 116; Stratford, 118; Oxford, 138; London, 
152; Paris, 309; Waterloo, 314; Cologne, 326; Up the Rhine, 337; 
Strasburg Cathedral, 364; Switzerland, 373; Lake Lucerne, 385; 
Geneva, 416; Chamouny, 420; Italy, 436. 

Britons AND Muscovites. Curtis Guild. 1888. — London Hotels, 
13; Ripon and Fountains Abbey, 53; Furness Abbey, 65; Old 
Boston; 73; Berlin, 83; St. Petersburg, 95-121; Moscow, 141; 
Siberian Exiles, i8i ; Nijni Novgorod, 193-230. 



442 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Land of the Midnight Sun, — Sweden, Norway, Lapland, 
AND Finland. Paul B.Dh Chaillu. (2 vols. Illustrated.) — Vol. I. . 
Midnight Sun, 48, 57, 61, 63, 70, 107 ; Vegetation in the Arctic Circle, 
149; Seasons near the Arctic Circle, 153; Stockholm, 13; Baltic 
Sea, 37; Lapland Customs, 122; Fjords, 219. 252; Christiana, 297; 
Mountain-houses, 280. Vol. II.: Reindeer, 69, 72, 86, 104, 108; 
Home-life, 66; Winter Costumes, 69; A Lapp Encampment, 78; 
Lapp Dogs, 81; Climate, 135; Herring, 146; Laplanders, 169; 
Church, 226, 373,459; Marriage, 234; Houses, 271; Mountain Scene- 
ry, 302 ; Schools, 378. 

Russia. D. M. Wallace. (2 vols.) — Vol. I. : Travelling in Russia, 
I ; The Village' Priest, 76; A Village Doctor, 103; A Peasant Family, 
126; The Peasantry of the North, 144; Tartar Villages, 227; The 
Towns, 250; Novgorod, 279; The Nobles, 411; Social Classes, 
436. Vol. II.: The Pastoral Tribes of the Steppes, 30; The Cos- 
sacks, 71; St. Petersburg, 114; Moscow, 149; The Serfs, 234. 

European Breezes. Pitman. — German Life, 30; Street-Sights, 
39; Americans in Hanover, 45; German Opera, 49; Sundays on the 
Continent, 55; The Rhine, 59; Jews, 64; Heidelberg, 81 ; A German 
Spa, 91; German Domestic Ways, loi ; Table d^Hdte, 104; Vienna, 
121; Austrian Women, 134; The Blue Danube, 157; Budapest, 179; 
Hungarian Manners and Ways, 194; Hungarian Villages, 226; The 
Magyars, 254; Switzerland, 272. 

Italian Pictures. Samuel Manning. — The Campagna, 19,26, 
27 ; Bird's Eye View of Rome, 28 ; Temple of Minerva, 33 ; On the 
Appian Way, 39; Forum, 41; Pantheon, 61; Catacombs, 71; St. 
Peter's, 79; Naples, 115; Pompeii, 138; Florence, 160; Genoa, 187; 
Venice, 193. 

German Fatherland. S. G. Green. (Fully illustrated.) — Up 
the Rhine, 11; Drachenfels, 12; On the Mosel, 17; Worms, 27; 
Heidelberg, 33 ; Black Forest, 68; Heligoland, 56; Canal at Ham- 
burg, 57; Hanover, 68; Berlin, 71; Vienna, 116 j Tyrol, 143; 
Nuremberg, 188 ; Frankfort, 203. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 443 

Misrcllanoous. 

Kingdom of Hawaii. C. F. G. Cumming. (2 vols. Well illus- 
trated.) — Vol. I.: Honolulu, 50; Hilo, 73; A Sugar Plantation, 
112, 273; Kilauea Crater, 125; Descent of the Crater, 155; Coast 
of Hawaii, 245. Vol. H. : Hawaiian Morals, 74; History, 115; 
Account of the Great Eruption in 18S0. 

Coral Lands. H.S.Cooper. (Photos.) — Vol.1. : The Fiji Group, 
18; I>evuka, 61 ; Fiji Life, 116; Birds, etc., 194; Vegetation, 263. Vol. 
IL: Navigator's Islands, i; Manners and Customs in Samoa, 11; 
The South-Sea Kings, 48; Pearl-fishing, 79; Turtle and Sponge Fish- 
ing, 126; The Solomon Islands, 278; The Society Islands, 282. 

Island Life. Wallace. (Supplement to Geographical Distribu- 
tion of Animals.) — Remarkable Contrasts in the Distribution of 
Animals, 3; Changes of Land and Sea, 81 ; Life on the Azores, 238 ; 
Life on the Sandwich Islands, 29S; Life on the Japan Islands, 363; 
Life in New Zealand, 457. 

The New Astronomy. S. P. Langley, 1S88. (Illustrated.) — 
Spots on the Sun, i ; The Sun's Surroundings, 35 ; The Sun's Energy, 
70; The Planets and the Moon, 117; Meteors, 175; The Comets, 
199; The Stars, 221. 

Weather. R. Abercromby. (International Scientific Series. 
D. Appleton «& Co., 18S7. Illustrated.) — Weather Prognostics, 16; 
Clouds, 71 ; Isobars, 125; Cyclones and Anticyclones, 138; Changes 
of Weather, 151 ; Wind and Calm, 1S3; Heat and Cold, 204; Squalls 
and Thunderstorms, 234 ; Whirlwinds and Tornadoes, 263 ; Local 
Variation of Weather, 280; Diurnal Variation of Weather, 294; 
Types and Spells of Weather, 327 ; Forecasting, 390. 

Poems of Places. 

The collection of poems made by the poet Longfellow, 
and called Poems of Places (thirty-one volumes, published 
by Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.; price $i.oo a volume), is a 
better book for children to study than some geographical 
textbooks. A poem which contains a little story or inci- 
dent, like Abdel-Hassan, or St. John (1647) ; one which is 



444 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Strongly descriptive, like The Lord'' s-Day Gale, or Coral 
Islands ; or one which has a little humor in it, like Robert 
Southey's Maixh to Moscozv, — will arouse much interest, if 
read at the proper time by the teacher, or, better, by some 
pupil. 

There is, of course, not very much time for " poetical 
geography ; " but some of these poems, like Kilimanjaro, 
or The Reve^ige, are most excellent for declamations and 
readings, and can thus be utilized without any extra time. 
Many of these poems refer to historical themes. 

An hour's study on the localities mentioned in the table 
of contents given in any volume named above, would be 
much more profitable, in our judgment, than finding the 
answer to most questions in a textbook. 

The poets who have written the largest number of 
descriptive poems, and such as refer to noted places, are, — 

Longfellow, Whittier, B. Taylor, Byron, Arnold, Southey, 
R. Browning, Trench, Scott, Felicia Hemans, Bryant, 
Cowper, Sigourney, Tennyson. 

To show the style and appropriateness of these poems, 
two are given below, followed by a list of the best in each 
volume. 

Siberia. By James C. Mangon. From Poems of Places, vol 
XX., p. 215. 

In Siberia's wastes 

The ice-wind's breath 
Woundeth like the toothed steel. 
Lost Siberia doth reveal 
Only blight and death. 

Blight and death alone. 

No summer shines, 
Night is interblent with day. 
In Siberia's wastes alway 

The blood blackens, the heart pines. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 445 

In Siberia's wastes 

No tears are shed, 
For they freeze within the brain. 
Naught is felt but dullest pani. 

Pain acute, yet dead. 

Pain as in a dream. 

When years go by 
Funeral-paced, yet fugitive; 
When man lives, and doth not live, 

Doth not live — nor die. 

In Siberia's wastes 

Are sands and rocks. 
Nothing blooms of green or soft; 
But the snow-peaks rise aloft. 

And the gaunt ice-blocks. 

And the exile then 

Is one with those. 
They are past, and he is past; 
For the sands are in his heart. 

And the killing snows. 

Therefore in those wastes 

None curseth czar; 
Each man's tongue is cloven 
By the north blast, who heweth nigh 

With sharp scymitar. 

And such doom dares 

Till, hunger-gnawn and cold-slain. 
He at length sinks there ; 
Yet scarce more ■x corpse than ere 

His last breath was drawn. 

The Coming of Mont Blanc. By //. Morford. Poems of 
Places, voL x., p. 255. 

Running along the high level 

Of Jura, wild and hard, 
With the charms of the great Rhone Valley yet lingering in rny eyes, 
I heard the porter out calling 

The station-name " Bellegarde! " 
And then, in a moment later, I saw wedded earth and skies. 



446 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

A snow-bank reached to heaven, 

And the clouds below its crown 
Seemed shrinking off from its summit in a natural fear and awe; 
Great feathery swales suggesting 

The lightness of eider-down, 
And held in that air-solution by nature's chemical law. 

And there, but a little eastward, 

Slim needles, greenly white, 
Thrust up through the higher strata their points so fatal keen, 
Catching and breaking and changing 

The wonderful play of light. 
But ngver losing that radiance denied to the lowlands mean. 

The great white Alps, and their monarch, — 

Mont Blanc, of the royal fame, — 
And the Aiguillettes resplendent, that hem the robes of a king: 
These were the long-sought glories 

That to me that moment came ; 
And the hour must be far, far distant, an answering thrill to bring. 

It seemed as if toil and danger. 

As if absence and pain and grief. 
In that one supremest moment were a thousand times repaid; 
Like slaking the drouth of the thirsty. 

And giving the sick relief, 
And allowing the tired to slumber in the cool and pleasant shade. 

" Mont Blanc! " I cried; I remember 

How calmer companions stared. 
And looked from the carriage window to see me insanely leap: 
" Mont Blanc! thy throne. Almighty! 

And thine eye its brow has dared, 
As we have so often dreamed in our broken prophetic sleep." 

" How far away? Is it twenty. 

Is it thirty, or fifty miles? " 
And a pleasant voice makes answer, of a Swiss beside us there. 
While her face is lit with the calmest 

Of sweet, compassionate smiles, 
" 'Tis an hundred miles from here the great mountain heaves in air.' 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 447 

An hundred miles ! So reach us 

At a distance beggaring thought, 
The great deeds that the wise and the mighty have done to exalt our race. 
So the might of the art creative, 

And the marvels it has wrought, 
Outstrip the thought that is laggard, .uid make vassals of time and space. 

Since then, by sunlight, by moonlight. 

At soft eve, and radiant morn, 
I have watched the Alpine monarch, and studied his smile and frown; 
Have seen moraine and glacier. 

Where ice-bound rivers are bom, 
And passed the spot where the avalanche comes crashing and thundering down. 

Bui he gives me no hour exultant, 

Like that when I seemed to choke, 
On the wooded heights of Jura, with a pleasure akin to pain, — 
When the wild white Alpine glory 

To my waiting spirit spoke ; 
And the scene was forever pictured on the nerves of heart and brain. 

Iiuportaiit Poi'ins in " Poems of Places." 

North America. 

New England. — Vol. XXV. : Voyage of Columbus, Samuel Rogers, 
12; Our Aborigines, L. H. Sigourney, 23; The Old Continentals, 
Anon, 2,2, ; Snowbound, Whittier, 52 ; Grandmother's Story of Bunker- 
Hill Battle, Holmes, 107; The Dorchester Giant, Holmes, 118; The 
Washington Elm (Cambridge), Lowell, 126; The Cambridge Church- 
yard, Holmes, 129; The Village Blacksmith, Longfellow, 136; The 
Bridge, Longfellow, 138; The Garrison of Cape Ann, Whittier, 146; 
To the River Charles, Longfellow, 15S; Concord Fight, Emerson, 
167 ; The Captain's Drum (Engfield), B. F. Taylor, 197 ; The Wreck 
of the Hesperus, Longfellow, 201 ; The Phantom Boat, E. N. Gunni- 
son, 204; The Wreck of Rivermouth (Hampton), Whittier, 218; 
Abraham Davenport (Hartford), Whittier, 230; Little Jerry, the 
Miller (Highgate, Vt.), Saxe, 242 ; The Franklin Mansion (Hopkinton, 
Mass.), Holmes, 248; The Wreck of the Pocahontas, Celia Thaxter, 
265. Vol. XXVI. : Mount Kearsarge, Edna D. Proctor, 3 ; The Birds 
of Killingworth, Longfellow, 7 ; Skipper Ireson's Ride (Marblehead), 



448 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Whittier, 21; By the Seashore (Marblehead), J. W. Chadwick, 30; 
The Skeleton in Armor (Newport), Longfellow, 125; My Mountain 
(Pemigewasset, N.H.), Lucy Larcom, 156 ; Prayer of Agassiz 
(Penikese), Whittier, 160; Penikese, Thomas G. Appleton, 164; Lady 
Wentworth (Portsmouth), Longfellow, 206; The Letter of Marque 
(Shoal of Georges), C. F. Orne, 248. 

Middle States. — Vol. XXVII. : Greenwood, S. M. Hagerman, 36; 
Horicon (Lake George), H. Morford, 85; Lake George, A. C. Coxe, 
86; Hudson River, Thos. W. Parsons, 104; Avery (Niagara Falls), 
William D. Howells, 163 ; West Point, H. F. Tuckerman, 262. 

Southern States. — No\. XXVIII. : My Maryland, J. R. Randall, 3; 
The Slave in the Dismal Swamp, Longfellow, 67 ; The Gulf of 
Mexico, A. Chambers-Ketchum, 120; The Burial of the Dane (Gulf 
of Mexico), H. H. Brownell, 122 ; The Mount Burial (Mount Mitchell, 
N.C.), L. H. Sigourney, 140; Mount Vernon (Virginia), 1786, D. 
Humphreys, 145; Kit Carson's- Ride (the Plains of Texas), J. Miller, 
263. 

Western States. — Vol. XXIX. : The Minnesota Water-shed, 
Holmes, 31 ; The Cafion, J. Miller, 36; Dows Flat (California), Bret 
Harte, 73; Plain Language from Truthful James, Bret Harte, 240; 
The Four Lakes of Madison (Wisconsin), Longfellow, 91 ; Lake 
Michigan, Kate Harrington, 104; On the Shores of the Tennessee, 
244; Minnehaha (the Falls), Longfellow, 109; Memphis, J. T. Trow- 
bridge, 100. 

British America. — Vol. XXX. : Grande Pre (Nova Scotia), 
Longfellow, 30; D'Anville's Fleet (Halifax), Hunter Duvar, 34; The 
Montmorency Waterfall, L. E. Landon, 45; Mount Royal (Montreal), 
Charles Sangster, 46; The Lord's-Day Gale, Ed. C. Stedman, 91; 
Rapids of the Lachine, Charles Sangster, 82. 

Mexico, South America, etc. — Vol. XXX.: El Palo Santo, Fr. 
Fuller Victor, 122; Monterey, Charles F. Hoffman, 143; Popocatapetl, 
William H. Lythe, 150; Crossing the Line (Ecuador) C. F Botes, 
206; The Damsel of Peru, Bryant, 220; Rio Janeiro (Brazil), J. D. 
Lang, 226; Gan-Eden, Queen of the Antilles (Cuba), MaryB. Clarke, 
236; El Paseo (Havana), Thomas Durfee, 252. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 449 

Africa. 

VoL XX!V. — Mnc2i, Maria Lowell, 17 ; The African Chief, Bryant, 
14; The Egyptian Princess, Ed. Arnold, 72; To an Egyptian Mummy, 
H. Smith, 81 ; The Sphinx and the Pyramids, George Wilson, 112; 
Marguerite of France, Felicia Hemans, 140; Kilimandjaro, B. Taylor, 
241 ; The Lion Hunt, Thomas Pringle, 234 ; Thebes, S. G. W. 
Benjamni, 196. 

Asia. 

Vol. XXII. — Santa Filomena (Scutari), Longfellow, 76; Vision 
of Belshazzar, Byron, 118; The Leap of Roushan Beg, Longfellow, 
161; The Arab to the Palm, B. Taylor, 177; Abdel-Hassan, Anon., 
201 ; The Date-Garden of the Desert, George B. Griffith, 214; The 
Rock in El Ghor (Petra), Whittier, 219 ; Clyte, Walter Thornbury, 
20. Vol. XXIII. : Hindoostan, W. M. Praed, 70; The Banian-tree, 
Robert Southey, 76 ; The Palm-tree, Whittier, 67 ; The Taj Mahal, 
Anon., 85 ; The Vale of Cashmere, Thomas Moore, 98 ; The Pipes of 
Lucknow, Whittier, 163 ; The White Elephant, H. Heine, 187 ; The 
Porcelain Tower (Nankin) Longfellow, 215; Japan, Longfellow, 239. 
Vol. XXI. : The Mosque, Lord Houghton, 9 ; Allah, S. A. Mahlmame, 
13; The Three Kings, Longfellow, 67; Nebo, Fr. Freiligrath, 201; 
The Burial of Moses, C. F. Alexander, 207 ; The Cities of the Plain, 
Whittier, 228. 

Europe. 

Austria. — Vol. XVI.: Bregenz, A. A. Proctor, 192. 

Belgium. — \a\. XV.: The Great Bell Roland (Ghent), Tilton, 
186; The Field of Waterloo, Scott, 208. 

Denmark. — Vol. XV. : From Ghent to Ai.x, R. Browning, 173; 
Bruges, Longfellow, 147. 

France. — Vol. X. : France, O. Goldsmith, i ; Aries, F. Mistral, 37 ; 
The Descent of the Rhone, R. C. Trench, Vol. X, 114. 

Great Britain. — Vol. II. : The Wishing Gate (Grasmere), Words- 
worth, 17; Wordsworth's Grave, James Payn, 22; The School- 
mistress, William Shenstone, 32 ; Kenilworth, The Ivy of, F. Hemans, 
67 ; The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire, Jean Ingelow, 90; 
The Mersey (Liverpool), B. R. Parker, 105 ; Sir Richard Whittington, 



450 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Anon., 131; Poets' Corner (London), R. Leighton, 143; St. James 
Street, Fr. Locke, 163; Temple Bar, W. Thornbury, 168; Tavern 
Signs, British Apollo, 172; Misadventures at Margate, R. H. Barham, 
210. Vol. III.: The Well of St. Keyne, Southey, 113; Robin Hood, 
M.Drayton, 143; Stratford-on-Avon at Night, H. G. Bell, 195; In 
Swanage Bay, D. M. M. Craik, 214; Thames, I. C. Knox, 236; Loss 
of the Royal George, Covvper, 168. 

Scotland. — Vol. VI. : Caledonia, Scott, i ; Tarn o' Shanter, Burns, 
33; Bannockburn, Burns, 73; Ben Lomond, Campbell, 83; Edin- 
burgh, Burns, 201. 

Germany. — Vol. XVII.: Bingen, Mrs. Norton, 46; The Breslau 
Bell Founder, W. Miiller, 65; The Pied Piper of Hamelin, Robert 
Browning, 11 t; Nuremberg, Longfellow, 241. 

Italy. — Vol. XL : Farewell to Italy, Anna Jameson, 47 ; Amalfi, 
Longfellow, 54; Old Pictures in Florence, Robert Browning, 154; 
Naples, Samuel Rogers, 259. Vol. XII. : Pisa, Thomas W. Parsons, 
37; The City of My Love (Rome), J. W. Howe, 117; Horatius at 
at the Bridge, Macaulay, 130: The Roman Carnival, Charles P. 
Cranch, 182. 

Russia. — Vol. XX. : Charge of the Light Brigade, Tennyson ; The 
March to Moscow, Robert Southey, 78 ; A Thousand Years (Nov- 
gorod), Bayard Taylor, 102; The Volga, Edna Dean Proctor, 153; 
A Song of the Camp (Sevastopol), Bayard Taylor, 118; America to 
Russia, O. W. Holmes, i. 

Spain {and Portugal). — Vols. XIV. and XV. : The Earthquake of 
Lisbon, 1755, Holmes, 107; Castles in Spain, Longfellow, 25; 
Gibralter, Miss L. E. Landon, 134; The Alhambra, Felicia Hemans, 
163 ; Columbus before the University of Salamanca, L. H. Sigourney, 
225; The Bull Fight, Byron, 19. 

Switzerland. — No\. XVI.: My Alpenstock, H. G. Bell, 12; Berne, 
M. Arnold, 36 ; Lake Leman and Chillon, H. Morford, 44 ; Pilatus 
Mount, E. Arnold, 116; Song of St. Bernard, T. B. Read, 126; The 
Death of Winkelried, W. Thornbury, 154. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION 45 I 



Oceanica. 

Vol. A'X.Y/. — Widderin's Race (Australia), P. H. Hayne, 18; 
Pitcairn's Island, Bryant, 65; The Revenge (Azores), Tennyson, 73; 
Teneriffe, S. G. W. Benjamin, 89 ; Coral Islands, Ph. G. Hamer- 
ton, 99; The Coral Grove, James G. Percival, 105; The Exhumation 
of Napoleon, W. W. Story; The Flamingo, S. G. W. Benjamin, 135; 
The Arctic Lover, Bryant, 143; Seaweed, Longfellow, 168; The Ship 
of the Dead, Longfellow, 170; The Sea, B. \V. Procter, 191; The 
Flying Dutchman, J. B. O'Reill}', 226 ; Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 
Longfellow, 247 ; The Beach at Hilo Bay, F. Coan, 282. 

Place-Names. 

Children are usually interested in knowing the meaning 
of names, especially if there is some incident, something 
humorous, or some interesting historical event, connected 
therewith. For instance, a class is always pleased to learn 
that Azores means a hatch, and was so named because these 
birds once abounded on these islands ; Maldives means 
one thousand islands, Laccadives ten thousand ishinds, on 
account of the many islands in that vicinity ; Pernambuco 
means the month of hell, on account of the violent harbor; 
the Philippine Isles are named after Philip II. of Spain ; 
Cape Verde, the Green Cape, was so named by Spanish 
sailors, on seeing the enormous baobab- trees crowning its 
summit ; Michigan means the iveir, or fish-trap, from its 
shape ; and Bab-el-Mandeb signifies the Gate of Tears, on 
account of the numerous shipwrecks at that ])oint. 

If the teacher will spend a few moments in explaining a 
few common prefixes and suffixes, such as burg (a castle), 
caster (a fortress or town), dam (a town), dorf (a village), 
polls (a city), sk (a river), stan (a country), and wich (a 



452 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

town), the children will soon be able to discover the 
meaning of many geographical names. 
• Teachers ought to take pleasure in calling the attention of 
the class orally to the meaning of one word, at least, in 
every country ; and in now and then writing a few words 
on the board for this purpose. Helps will be found in 
Warren's Common School Geography, Blackie's Etymological 
Derivations of Geography, and Taylor's Worlds and Places. 

Questions on a Picture. 

[Seep. i8i.] 

1. Where is Mauch Chunk? 

2. For what is it noted? 

3. What two or three things in the picture show this? 

4. What is meant by a pen-picture? 

5. Is the foreground on very high land? 

6. What river is shown in the picture? 

7. Why is it walled in ? 

8. Is the current slow, or swift? 

9. What is in the river? 

10. Where is the canal? 

1 1. How is river and canal crossed? 

12. On which side can you see the railroad? the station? 

13. Is the valley here narrow, or broad? 

14. What is represented by the smoke in the background? 

15. What is shown on the right of the picture? 



CHAPTER XX 

GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 



Reading maketh a full man. He that reads little, needs much 
cunning to make him seem to know that which he does not. — Bacon. 

Children naturally love that which is good and pure in literature. 
The taste for what is unclean, is an acquired taste. — Balliet. 

453 



CHAPTER XX 
GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 

teacher's library — GEOGRAPHICAL READERS — SCIENCE FOR CHILDREN — TRAVELS 
FOR CHILDREN — SCIENCE FOR ADULTS — TRAVELS FOR ADULTS — BOOKS IN PAPER 
COVERS — GEOGRAPHICAL STORIES AND NOVELS — FRENCH AND GERMAN BOOKS — 
REFERENCE BOOKS — COSTLY ILLUSTRATED BOOKS 

THE attempt has been made to include in this hst no 
ivortlikss books. These books have all been examined ; 
and although there is a great difference in their value, yet 
each volume will prove to be, we believe, a helper to the 
teacher searching for something to give new interest to 
the geographical recitation. 

The best books for the teacher and for his work in the 
schoolroom, not including the large and " costly illustrated 
works " given in a separate list, are placed first, in each 
case, under the various countries ; the less valuable books 
are alphabetically arranged after the rule ( ). An ex- 
tended list is given, many more than any teacher needs to 
read, so that some one book at least may be found in the 
teacher's town library. 

All the books are either of very recent publication, or still 
considered the standard works on that subject. Books from 
fifteen to twenty years of age are of little comparative value 
in travel or in geography. Bayard Taylor's books can no 
longer stand at the head. 

455 



456 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



A few comments have been added where needed. Books 
marked with an asterisk are analyzed under Sources of 
Information, in the previous chapter. 

ONE THOUSAND BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY 

THE TEACHER'S GEOGRAPHICAL LIBRARY 

The First Books to Purchase. 

(a) For Work in Advanced Classes. 

Ritter's Comparative Geography. American Book Company. 
Price $1.25. . Chisholm's Commercial Geography. Price ^5. 

Guyot's Earth and Man. Charles Scribner's Sons. Price $1.75. 

Johnston's Physical and Descriptive_Geography. Edward Stanford, 
London. For sale by Willard Small, Boston. Price $2.75. 

Guyot's Physical Geography. American Book Company. Price 
$1.60. 

Johonnot's Geographical Reader. American Book Company. 
Price $1.20. 

Prime's Around the World. Harper & Bros. Price $3.00. 

Crocker's Methods of Teaching Geography. Boston School Sup- 
ply Company. Price $0.60. 

Patton's Natural Resources of the United States. D. Appleton & 
Co. Price $3.00. Tilden's Commercial Geography. Price $1.25. 

Parker's How to Study Geography. D. Appleton & Co. Price $1.50. 

Redway's Teachers' Manual of Geography. Heath & Co. Price 
1^0.50. 

Jackson's Astronomical Geography. Heath & Co. Price $0.30. 

Guyot's Common School Geography. Teacher's edition, with 
Teacher's Guide. American Book Company. Price $1.25. 

Barnes's, Swinton's, Harper's, Appleton's, McNally's, Warren's, 
Common School Geographies. 

{b) For Work in Lower Classes. 

Geikie's Physical Geography. Macmillan & Co. Price $1.10. 

Brown's Manual of Commerce. Bill, Nichols, & Co. Price $1.25. 

Geographical Reader. American Book Company. Price $0.60. 

Andrews's Seven Little Sisters, who live on the Round Ball that 
floats in the air. Lee & Shepard. Price ^0.50. 



READERS, AND SCTRNCR FOR CHILDREN 



457 



Geikie's Teaching of Geography. Macmillan & Co. Price $0.60. 

Carver's How to Teach Geography. Educational Publishing 
Company, Boston. Price $0 25. 

Kirby's Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. T. Nelson & Co. Price 
$0.60. 

Blakiston s Glimpses of the Earth. E. P. Button & Co. Price |o.8o, 

Jackman's Nature Study Henry Holt & Co. 

Si)arha\vk's Miss West's Class in Geography. Boards. $0.30. 

Frye's Geography with Sand Modelling. Ginn & Co. Price 
$1.25. 

Miller's Little People of Asia. E. P. Button & Co. Price $2.50. 

Andrews's Geographical Plays. 6 parts, 15 cents each. Lee & 
Shepard. 

Barnes's, Guyot's, Swinton's, Harper's, Appleton's, Primary 
Geographies, and Our World (i). 

GEOGRAPHICAL READERS. 



Standard Readers (6 vols.) 
World at Home (6 vols.) 
Blackie's Readers (7 vols.) 
London Readers — Miss Mason 
(5 vols.) 



Whitehall Readers (6 vols.) 
Glimpses of the Globe — Blackis- 

ton (6 vols.) 
Picturesque Readers — King (8 

vols.) 



Note. — The above Geographical Readers are all published in London, except 
the last-named set, which is published by Lee & Shepard. 



SCIENCE FOR CHILDREN 

Andrews . . . Seven Little Sisters. Part I. 

Each and All. Part H. 

Ten Boys. 
Moore .... Overhead. 
Nichols. . . . Underfoot. 

Miller .... Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. 
Buckley . . . The Winners in Life's Race. 

Life and her Children. 
Stwin .... Eyes Right. 
KiRBY .... The World at the Fireside, 

The Sea and its Wonders. 
Richards . . . Four Feet, Two Feet, and No Feet. 



458 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

BiART Adventures of a Young Naturalist. 

Mayer .... Sport with Gun and Rod. Fully illustrated. 
This is a large and very handsomely printed volume on Sport. 

Abbott .... Science for the Young. 4 vols. 

Heat, Light, Water, and Land Force. These books contain numerous 
simple experiments, readily performed by boys and girls. 

Miller .... In Nesting Time. 
Burroughs . . Fresh Fields. 

Sketches of Nature. 
Herrick . . . Wonders of Plant Life. 
Proctor .... Easy Star Lessons. 
Giberne .... Among the Stars. Illustrated. 

Lessons given in a conversational style, well adapted to read to beginners. 



Beard .... Humor in Animals. Illustrated. 
Bush ..... Reindeer, Dogs, and Snowshoes. 
Champlin . . . Young Folks' Astronomy. 
The book contains some useful illustrations. 

Cooper .... Animal Life in the Sea and Land. Fully illus. 
CooLiDGE . . . My Household Pets. 
D'Anvers , . . Lowest Forms of Water Animals. 
No. v., in " Science Ladders." There are six volumes. 

Dana The Geological Story Briefly Told. 

De Vere . . . Wonders of Vegetation. 

Wonders of Water. 

Farmer .... A Story-Book of Science. Illustrated. 

Very fine illustrations, and the text vv^ell adapted for children. 

Gosse ..... Romance of Natural History. 
Headley . . . Mountain Adventures. 

.... Half-Hours Underground. Illustrated. 

Volcanoes and earthquakes are well described and illustrated. 

Hall Animal Sagacity. 

Contains many anecdotes of animals. 

Hamerton . . . Chapters on Animals. 

Holder .... Marvels of Animal Life. Illustrated. 

In the Polar Regions. Illustrated. 

In the Temperate Regions. Illustrated. 
Hopkins . . . Natural History Plays. 

Handbook of the Earth. 



TRAVELS FOR CHILDREN 



459 



AClNGSLEY . . 

Prang . . . 
Norwood . 
Meyer . . 

Science made 

Northrop . . 
Stephenson . 
Taylor . . . 
Tenney (Mrs.) 

Treat . . . 

Van Dervoort 
WOLLF . . . 

Wood . . . 



Young 



. Madam How and Lady Why. 
. Natural History Series. 

Facts and Phases of Animal Life. 
. Real Fairy Folks, 
plain for the youngest children. 

. Earth, Sea, and Sky. Illustrated. 

. Boys and Girls in Biology. 

. Half-Hours at the Seaside. 

. Young Folks' Pictures and Stories of Animal 

6 parts. 
. My Garden Pets. 

About Spiders, Ants, etc. 
. The Water World. Illustrated. 
. Wild Animals. 
. Out of Doors. 

Natural History. 

Popular Natural History. 

The Dwellers in our Gardens. 

Strange Dwellings. Fully illustrated. 
. Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. 



Fully illus. 



McCabe 



TRAVELS FOE CHILDREN 

Knox Boy Travellers. Asia. 8 parts. 

The Boy Travellers on the Congo. 

Hale Family Flights. 5 vols. 

Through Mexico; Around Home; Over Egypt; Through Spain; Through 
France. 

. . . . Our Young Folks in Africa. 
Our Young Folks Abroad. 
Little People of Asia. 
Child-Life in Japan. 
Cast Away in the Cold. 
Hans Brinker, Holland. 
A Trip to Alaska. 
Zigzag Journeys. 7 vols. 
In Arcadia: In Northern Lands; In the Occident 



Miller . 
Ayrton . , 
Hayes . 
Dodge . 
Wardman . 
ISutterworth 

In the Levant 



In 



the Orient; In Classic Lands; In Europe. 

These books contain more history than geography, compared v ith some 
other juveniles; but the pictures are always genuine views of local ties, and 
many romantic stories and traditions of persons and places are woven into the 
description. 



460 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Abbott .... Marco Paul's Voyages and Travels. 6 vols. 

In New York; On the Erie Canal; In the Forests of Maine; In Vermont; 
In Boston; At the Springfield Armory. 

Written for Young Children, but imparting much Information of the scenery 
and customs of these sections. 



Abbott 



Rollo Books. 



Gumming . . . Hunting .- South Africa. 

Andersen . . . Rambles in the Hartz Mountains. 

Bush Reindeer, Dogs, and Snowshoes. 

Champney . . . Three Vassar Girls. 5 vols. 

Crowninshield . All among the Lighthouses. 

A story about the coast of Maine. 

Campbell . .... Old Forest Ranger. 

Describes wild sports in India on the Neilgherry Hills and in the Jungles. 

Dull Patty Gray's Journey to the Cotton-islands. 

Farrar .... Eastvi^ard Ho ! 

Wild Woods Life. 
A trip of Boston boys to Northern Maine. 

Down the West Branch. 

Up the North Branch. 

Fogg Land of the Arabian Nights. 

French .... Our Boys in India. 

Our Boys m China. 
Geddie .... Beyond the Himalayas. 
Grace Greenwood and Harriet Martineau's Books. 
Greey .... Young Americans in Japan. 

Young Americans in the Wonderful City of 
Tokio. 

Young Americans among the Bear Worshippers. 
Hall Adrift in the Ice-Fields. 

Drifting Round the World. 
HiELD .... Glimpses of South America. 

This is a small book^ but very interesting and helpful for the school-rooim. 

Kingston . . . Fred Markham in Russia. 
Newhall . . . Harry's Trip to the Orient. 

The Azores, Mediterranean Sea, Constantinople, Damascus, Baalbec, Acre, 
Nazareth, etc. 

NoRTHRUP . . . Camps and Tramps in the Adirondacks. 1880. 

A readable book for young people, describing real adventures by a small 
party who spent a summer in these celebrated woods. 



SCIENCE FOR ADULTS 



461 



Ober Knockabout Club in the Everglades. 

Oliver Optic . . Young America Abroad. 12 vols. 

Oswald .... Days and Nights in the Tropics. Illustrated. 

RiDEiNG .... Boys in the Mountains. 

Western adventures, with numerous fine illustrations. 

Boys Coastwise. 
A boy'<; ■^tnry nhnut the coast, ocean-steamers, wrecks, life-saving service, etc. 

Rand All Aboard for Sunrise Lands. 

Rip Van Winkle's Journeys. 
Sander .... Spectacles for Young Eyes. 

SCUDDER 

Stephens 
Taylor . 
Towle . 
Trafton 
Watson . 

WiNSLOW 

Wise . . 



Mr. Bodley Abroad : In Holland. 

Knockabout Club Alongshore. 

Views Afoot. 
, Heroes of History. 6 vols. 

American Girl Abroad. 

Child-Life in Italy. 

Children's Fairy Geography. 
. Boy Travellers in Arabia. 
Contains Anecdotes of the Wandering Arabs and Bagdad. 



SCIENCE FOR ADULTS 

Reclus .... The Ocean. Fully illustrated. 
The Earth. Fully illustrated. 
Physical Geography. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Huxley .... Physiography. Illustrated. 
Reclus .... The History of a Mountain. Illustrated. 
Wallace . . . Geographical Distribution of Animals. 
Agassiz .... Seaside Studies of Natural History. Illustrated. 
The illustrations are very fine, and the descriptive part brief and pointed. 
A very valuable book. 

Tyndall . . . Forms of Water. 

Darwin .... Vegetable Mould and Earth-Worms. 

Huxley .... The Crayfish. 1880. Illustrated. 

Jull and complete description of the lobster and crab. 
Wallace . . . Natural Selection. 
Island Life. 

Morse First Book of Zoology. 

Marsh .... Man and Nature. 
Damon .... Ocean Wonders. 

SCIENCE PRIMERS on Astronomy, Geography, Geology, Botany, 
Natural Resources of the United States. 



462 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Lawson 



Williams 




Johnston 




SiMMONDS 




Jordan . 




Milne . 




Vol. I. 


Animals 


quakes; Volcanoes. 


Vol. 2. 


Rivers; 


Proctor . 




Gibson . 


. . . 


Gilpin . 


. . . 


Brown . 




Wood . . 


■ « 



Geography of Coast-l.ine. 

Geography of River Systems. 

Geography of the Oceans. 

The Surface Zones of the Earth. 

Commercial Products of the Sea. 

The Ocean, Tides, Currents. 

Wonders of the Earth and Heavens. 2 vols 

Illustrated. 
Minerals; Peat; Coral; Mountains; Glaciers; Earth- 
Lakes; Oceans; Winds; Clouds; Lightning; Stars; etc. 
Half-Hours with the Stars, 
Chips from the Earth's Crust. Illustrated. 
Mission of the North- American People. 
Races of Mankind. 4 vols. 
Uncivilized Races. 



Adams . 

Ansted . 
Bancroft 
Cooke 

Presents 

Dana . . 
Davis . . 
Dawson . 
Ellis . . 
Emerton 

EWING 

Figuier . 
Foster . 

Vol. I. 
marks. 
Vol. 2. 



Famous Caves and Catacombs Illustrated. 
Famous Caverns and Grottos. Illustrated. 
Physical Geography. 
Native Races. 

Freaks and Marvels of Plant-Life. 
subject in a popular form. 

Geology. 

Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. 
Geology. 

Red Man and White Man. 
Life on the Seashore. 
A Week in a Glass Pond. 
The Ocean. Illustrated. 
Mississippi Valley. 
Frost and Fire. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Home Geology; Atmospheric Forms; Air; Den-idation; Frost 



Currents; Winds; Dikes; Sparks; Springs; etc. 

Goodrich . . . Manners and Customs of the Nations. 

GossE The Ocean. 

Geikie .... The Great Ice-Age. Illustrated.* 
A systematic account of the Glacial Epoch. 

Galloway . . . Coal-Mining in Great Britain. 



SCIENCE FOR ADULTS 



463 



Haldane 
Harris . 
Hartwig 
Heilprin 

Hartwig 
Hooker 
Hughes 
Jordan 

JUDD . 

LONGITTE 

LOOMIS 

Lyell . 
Morse 

Murray 

NiCHOL 

Oliver 
Orton 
Packard 



SCAMMON 

Proctor 

Selections of the 



Sub-tropical Cultivations and Climates. 1886. 

Insects Injurious to Vegetation. 

The Ocean. Illustrated. 

The Geographical and Geological Distribution 

of Animals. 1887. 
The Subterranean World. Illustrated. 
Mineralogy and Cjeology. 
Physical Geography. 
The Ocean. Illustrated. 
Volcanoes, 

Our Birds and their Haunts. 
Meteorology. (Text-boolc.) 
Geology. 
Zoology, 

Monsters of the Sea. Illustrated. 
Arctic Geography and Ethnology. 
Physical History of the Earth. 
Astronomy for Amateurs. 18S8. 
Zoology. 
Zoology. 

Guide to the .Study of Insects. 
Marine Mammals. 
Light Science for Leisure Hours. 
author's contributions to various magazines. 



Somerville . . Physical Geography. 
SONREL .... The Bottom of the Sea. 
Smith .... Domestic Botany. 

An exposition of the structure and classification of plants, and of theit uses 
for food, clothing, medicine, and manufacturing purposes. 

Treat .... Home Studies in Nature. 

Chapters on Ants. 
Wallace . . . Natural Distribution. 
Whymper . . . The Fisheries of the World. 
Wilson .... Prehistoric Man. 

Wood Zoology. 

Greely . . . American Weather. 
Heap .... Lighthouses. Illustrated. 
Chadwick . . . Steamships. Illustrated. 
SiMONiN . . . Underground Life. Illustrated. 

The American Railway. Illustrated. 
Shaler .... Aspects of the Earth. Illustrated. 



464 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



TRAVELS FOR ADULTS 

NORTH AMERICA 
Alaska. 

Dall Alaska. Fully illustrated. 

The most complete book on this country yet published. 

ScHWATKA . . . The Yukon. Illustrated. 

The author describes in a readable way his journey down the river. 

Wright .... Among the Alaskans. Illustrated. 
This is a small book, but it contains much of interest. 

SciDMORE* . . . Journeys in Alaska. Illustrated. 
The descriptions are good, but the pictures inferior. 



Karr Shores and Alps of Alaska. 

' This book contains a fine picture of Mount St. Elias. 

Jackson .... Alaska. Illustrated. 
PiERREPONT . . From Fifth Avenue to Alaska. 
Whymper . . . Alaska. 
Wardman ... a Trip to Alaska. 

The author visited the fur-seal islands, the sea-otter grounds, Sitka, and 
many other points in the Alaskan territory. 
Ballou .... A Summer Journey to Alaska. 

Tlie Arctic Regions. 

Greely* . . . Three Years of Service. 2 vols. Fully illus- 
trated. Numerous photos. 
,_„ jrr -pj^g illustrations in these volumes are among the best, many of them being 
photographic. — CJias. Scribner's Softs, 1886. 

Nordenskiold . The Voyage of the Vega. Illustrated. 

Both scientific and popular. 

Rink* .... Greenland. Illustrated. 
The best book on this country. 

Hall Second Arctic Expedition. Fully illustrated. 

Hayes * . . . . Open Polar Seas. Fully illustrated. 

Kane Arctic Explorations. Fully illustrated. 

Markham . . . The Great Frozen Sea. Fully illustrated. 

Murray .... Arctic Geography and Ethnology. 



NORTH AMERICA 



465 



NouRSE* , . . American Explorations in the Ice Zones. Fully 
illustrated. 
This book contains the condensed account of all the great expeditions sent 
out by this country. 

Davis . . . 



De Long . 
Gilder . . 

Contains an 

Nan SEN . . 



North Polar Expeditions. Fully illustrated. 
The Voyage of the Jeannette. 2 vols. Illus. 
Ice Pack and Tundra, 
account of Lieut. Schwatka's search for the " Jeannette." 

, Crossing Greenland. 1890. 



DUFFERIN 




Hall . . 




Hartwig 




Kennedy 




MacGaham 




Nares 




Lamont . 




This voy 


ige was 


Robinson 




Smith . 




TOMLINSON 




Young . 




Keely . . . . 


Bryce . . . . 


Lorne (Marquis) . 


IIatton * . . . 


Benjamin . . . 


Butler . . . . 


Hall . 




Hardy . 




Fleming. 




Fellows 




a canoe 


voyage. 


Osgood . 




Rowan . 




Shea . . 





Illus. 



High Latitudes. 

Arctic Researches. Illustrated. 
The Polar World. Illustrated. 
To Arctic Regions and Back. 2 vols. 
Under the Northern Lights. 
To the Polar Sea. 2 vols. Photos. 
Yachting in the Arctic Seas. Illustrated, 
was undertaken for hunting-purposes. 

Expedition in Polaris. Illustrated. 

Arctic Expeditions. 3 vols. Fully illustrated. 

Arctic and Antarctic Regions. Illustrated. 

Voyages of the Pandora. Illustrated. 

In Arctic Seas. 1892. Illustrated. 

British America. 

Manitoba. Illustrated. 

Canadian Pictures. Fully illustrated. 

Newfoundland. Illustrated. 

Acadia. Illustrated. 

Gulf of St. Lawrence, etc. Illustrated. 



Wild North Land. 
Life in Manitoba. 
Forest Life in Acadia. 
Canada and the Rockies. 
The Winnipeg Country. 

Maritime Provinces. 

Canada. 

Newfoundland, Fisheries, etc. 



466 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

St. John. . . . Through British Columbia. 2 vols. 
ToCQUE .... Newfoundland. Illustrated. 
Warner .... New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, etc. 

Central America. 

Boddam-Whetham. Across Central America. 

Belt A Naturalist in Nicaragua. 

These scientific observations are made very fascinating to the general 
reader, by the pleasant style of the author. 

GiLLMORE . . . Adventures of a Young Naturalist. 
Sanborn ... A Winter in Central America. 

Mexico. 

Blake (Mary E.) 7 

Sullivan (Margaret F.) \ ^^^^^^'^ Picturesque, Political, Progressiva 

Ober * . . . . Travels in Mexico. Fully illustrated. 

Mr Ober knows what to see, and how to describe it for the general reader. 

Brocklehurst . Mexico To-day. Illustrated. 

The illustrations are very fine. 

Oswald .... Summerland Sketches. Illustrated. 
Wilson .... Mexico. Illustrated. 
Describes the peasants and the priests. 



Appletons' Guide. 

Anderson . . . Mineral Wealth of Mexico. 

Bandelier . . . Tour in Mexico. Photos. 

Baxter. . . . The Cruise of a Land Yacht. 1891. 

Beecher ... a Trip to Mexico. 

GooCH .... Face to Face with the Mexicans. Illustrated. 

Geiger .... a Peep at Mexico. 

Haven .... Our Next-door Neighbor. 

Kingsley . . . South by West. Illustrated. 

New England. 

King The White Hills. Illustrated. 

Drake .... Heart of the White Mountains. 

Godfrey . . . Nantucket, as it was and is. 

Drake .... Old Landmarks of Boston. Illustrated. 

Historic Fields of Middlesex. Illustrated. 

New England Coast. Illustrated. 



Flagg . . c . Fruits and Seasons of N^w England. 
Birds of New England.^ 



NORTH AMERICA 



467 



Flagg .... Woods and By-ways of New England. 
Farrar .... Richardson and Rangeley Lakes. Illustrated. 

Moosehead Lake, and the North Maine 
Wilderness. 
Mr. Farrar describes, not only the great Maine lake, but also the head- 
waters of the Kennebec, Penobscot, and St. John rivers. 

Fellows . . . Boating Trips in New England. 
Hubbard . . . Woods and Lakes in Maine. 
Pickering . . . Guide to the White Mountains. 
Steele .... Paddle and Portage in Maine. 
Stevens .... Fly-Fishing in Maine Lakes. 
Thoreau . . . Walden Excursions. 

The Maine Woods. 

Merrimac and Concord Rivers. 

Cape Cod. 

Indians. 

Battey . < . . a Quaker among the Indians. 
Cozzens .... The Marvellous Country. 
Dodge* .... Our Wild Indians Illustrated. 

CoL Dodge lived with the Indians, and he describes them in plain Eng- 
lish as he saw them year after year. 

Parkman . . . Oregon Trail. 

This book gives the romantic side of the Indian character as he was see^ 
before civilization had degraded him 

H. H A Century of Dishonor. 

The wrongs of the Indians are vividly set forth by this author. 

Ellis Red Man and White Man. 

Howard (Gen.) . Nez Perce Joseph. 

Meacham . . . Wigwam and Warpath. 

RiGGS Forty Years with the Sioux. 

Thatcher . . . Indian Traits. 



PafiHc Coast. 

Nordhoff . . . California. 

Webb .... California and Alaska 

Nash Oregon. 

Parkman . . . Oregon Trail. 

Pierrepont . . From Fifth Avenue to Alaska. 

Hutchings. . . California. Illustrated. 
A popular account. 



468 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



King Sierra Nevada. 

Leighton . . . Life in Puget Sound. 
Palmer .... California. 
Fisher .... Tlie Californians. 
Van Dyke . . . Southern California. 

This book gives full information of the seasons, temperature, rainfall, etc. 

Roberts .... Santa Barbara Islands. 

Including beautiful descriptions of these islands off the coast of Southern 
California, their people, homes, habits, religion, etc. 



The Rocky Mountains. 

Boddam-Whetham. Western Wanderings. 

WiNSER . . . Northern Pacific Railroad. Illustrated. 

Smalley* . . . History of the Northern Pacific Railroad. Illua 

Porter * . . . The West. Illustrated. 

Baillie-Graham . Camp in the Rockies. 

Bird Rocky Mountains. 

Dall Colorado and Calfornia. 

Butler .... Northern North America. 

WiNGATE . . . Through the Yellowstone Park. 

Whyndham . . Upper Yellowstone. Illustrated. 

Stanley. . . . Yellowstone. 

Blake .... On the Wing. 

Aldridge . . . Ranch Notes in Colorado. 

Gilpin .... The Mission of the North American People. 
Contains vivid descriptions of the Rocky Mountain plateau. 

Ingersoll . . . Knockings about the Rockies. 



Blake (Mrs. M. E. 
Bowles . , 
Dodge . , 
Conn . . 
Custer . 



A very graphic account of army life in the West, by the wife of Gen. Custer. 



GiLLMORE 

H. H. . . 
Hayes 
Lloyd 
Murphy . 



On the Wing. 

Across the Continent. 

The Plains of the Great West. 

Cowboys (Dakota). 

Boots and Saddle. 



Prairie and Forest. 2 vols. 

Bits of Travel. 

New Colorado. Illustrated. 

San Francisco. 

My Rambles in the North-west. 

On the Frontier. Photos. 



NORTH AMERICA 469 

Renny .... a Journey to Salt Lake City. 2 vols. 

Richardson . . Yellowstone River. (Small.) 

Robinson , . . The West (Utah). 

FiNCK .... The Pacific Coast. 

SouTHESK . . . Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains. 

Hunting adventures and learned talk. 

Todd The Sunset Land. 

Vivian .... Wanderings in the Western Land. 

The South. 

King* .... The Great South. 

Grosscup . . . Heart of the Alleghanies. Illustrated. 

Contains fine descriptions of the North-Carolina mountains, and many 
habits of the people. 

Hardy .... Down South. 
Tovvnshend . . Wild Life in Florida. 

Washington, Outside and Inside. 



Hugh Ten years on a Georgia Plantation. 1883. 

Kemble .... Georgia Plantation. 

Ingersoll . . . Shenandoah and Beyond. Illustrated. 

Ingraham . . . The Sunny South. 

Winter Travel in Florida and Mexico. 

M'est Indies. 

Ballou * . . . Due South. 

This book tells just what one wishes to know about the principal West- 
Indian Islands. 

Hazard* . . . Cuba with Pen and Pencil. Illustrated. 
Santo Domingo. Illustrated. 

Ober Camp in the Caribbees. Illustrated. 

Paton .... Down the Islands. Illustrated. 
Froude .... The English in the West Indies. 

Devoted to the English colonies, and very readable. 

Goodman . . . Pearl of the Antilles. 
Howe, Mrs. J. W. Cuba. 

A bright, entertaining book, although written several years ago. 

Dorr Bermuda. 

Contains descriptions of the people, their customs and habits, with a fine 
colored map. 



470 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Dana . . . 


. . To Cuba and Back. 




Eden . . . 


. . West Indies. Illustrated. 


(Small.) 


Ives . . . 


. . Nassau and the Bahamas. 


Illustrated 


KiNGSLEY . 


. . At Last. 




St. John . . 


. . Hayti. 

Miscellaneons. 





Picturesque America. Fully illustrated. 
Shaler .... Nature and Man in America. 
Manning* . . . American Pictures. 

The illustrations as well as the descriptions are striking and graphic. 

Lamb * . . . . Homes of America. 

This volume contains pictures with descriptions of the most beautiful 
residences in the country. 

Lamb Mountains, Lakes, and Rivers. Fully illustrated 

Marshall . . . Through America. Illustrated. 

Niagara. Illustrated. 
Strong .... Our Country. (Paper cover.) 
Codman .... Round Trip through Pacific States. 
Bachelder . . . Popular Resorts. Illustrated. 
Searing .... Land of Rip Van Winkle. Illustrated. 
Freeman . . . Impressions of America. 
Stanford . . . Compendium of North America. 

This is an illustrated cyclopsedia, but written in a popular style. 

Bishop .... Four Months in a Sneak-Box. 

A boat voyage of 2,600 miles down the Ohio, Mississippi, and along the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

Bishop .... Voyage of the Paper Canoe. 

From Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico, completing the trip described in the 
former volume. These books form good reading for a class of boys. 

Patton * . . . Natural Resources of the United States. 

This book is full of information, although hardly a book of travel. 



Blodgett 

DiLKE 
HOVEY 

Kinston 
Knox . 
McCabe 



Climate of North America. 
Greater Britain. 
Celebrated American Caverns. 
National History of America. 
Hunting Adventures. 2 vols. 
The Great Republic. A series. 



Illustrated. 
Illustrated. 
Illustrated. 



Each State is taken separately. 



SOUTH AMERICA 47 1 

Murphy .... Sporting Adventures in the Far West. Illus. 
Roe ..... From Newfoundland to Manitoba. 
Robinson . . ; Across the United States. 
Treats especially of the Mormons. 

Robinson . . . Great Fur Land. 

Sala America Re-visited. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

SOUTH AMERICA 

Argentine Republic. 

Bishop .... A Thousand Miles Walk across South America 
From Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso when the writer was only sixteen years 
of age. 

Page ..... La Plata and Chili. 

Clemens ... La Plata Countries. i886. 
Full of pertinent facts about the countries. 

Stewart . . . Brazil and the La Plata. 



Kee The Wild Horseman of the Pampas. 

Moncruff . . . The Pampas of the Argentine Republic. 

Thompson . . . Voyage of the Challenger. 2 vols. 

Washburn . . . History of Paraguay. 2 vols. 

Brazil and Eastern Sonth America. 

Marcoy .... Travels in South America. Fully illustrated. 
The illustrations in this book are full of instruction is well as beauty. The 
description is equally interesting. 

Smith .... Brazil. Illustrated. 

An instructive account of the country from a commercial point of view. 
Fletcher . . . Brazil and the Brazilians. 

A standard work on the country. 

Agassiz .... a Journey in Brazil. Illustrated. 
Wells .... Through Brazil. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

In this record of a three thousand miles journey, Mr. Wells depicts the 
aspects of the country, and the sorts and conditions of the people. 

Ewbank .... Life in Brazil. 
Brown * . . . . The Amazon. 

Describes the branches of the Amazon especially. 

Thurn .... Among the Indians of Guiana. Illustrated. 



472 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Bates The Naturalist on the Amazon. 

Boddam-Whetham, British Guiana. 

NissEMON . . . India Rubber. Illustrated. 



Keller . 
Mathews 

MULHALL 

Orton . 



The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Illustrated, 
Up and Down the Amazon. 
Between the Amazon and the Andes. lUus. 
Andes and Amazon. 



Chili and the >Vestern Part. 

Boyd Chili. Photos. 

Squier*. . . . Peru. Illustrated. 

Hutchinson . . Two Years in Peru. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Marcoy . , ., . . Travels in South America. 2 vols. 
Vol. I. is largely devoted to Peru. 



Clark . . . 
Markham . . 
Spence . . . 
Van Tschue . 
Whymper . . 


. Twelve Months in Peru. 
. Peru. Illustrated. (Small.) 
. . The Country of Bolivar. 2 vols. 
. Journey in the Andes. 
. Travels in the Andes. 

Northern Part. 


Illustrated. 


Paez .... 
Dana .... 


. Life in the Llanos of Venezuela. 
. Four Years in Venezuela. 

Southern Part. 


Illustrated 


Beerbohm . . 
Dixie* . . . 
Musters . . 


. Patagonia. Fully illustrated. 
. Across Patagonia. 
. The Patagonians. 





Miscellaneous. 

Bates Stanford's Compendium of South America. Ill, 

Embraces the whole country, and is a real cyclopaedia. 

Vincent . . . Around and About South America. Illustrated. 
RUMBARD . . . The Great Silver River. 1887. Illustrated. 
Gallanga . . . South America. 

Hassourck . . Four Years among Spanish Americans. 
Myers .... Life and Nature under the Tropics. 
Knight .... The Cruise of the Falcon. 

The author, with three friends and a boy, sailed to the noted seaports of 
South America in a thirty-ton yacht. 



AFRICA 



473 



AFRICA 



Central Africa. 

Stanley* . . . Through the Dark Continent. 2 vols. Illus. 
Stanley ... In Darkest Africa. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Stanley .... Congo. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Stanley .... How I found Livingstone. 
Cameron . . . Across Africa. 

Raker .... Albert N'Yanza. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Ismalia. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Abyssinia. 
ScHWEiNFURTH* The Heart of Africa. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Describes the pigmies, flora as well as people, of Niam-Niam. 

Thompson . . . Through Masai Land. Fully illustrated. 

Eastern Equatorial Africa. Fully illustrated. 
Mr. Thompson was sent out by the London Royal Geographical Society to 
make as complete a map as possible, to observe the natural history, climate, 
and people. He carried out this mission in the most conscientious manner. 

James* .... Wild Tribes of the Soudan. Photos. 

Very interesting hunting adventures in Eastern Soudan, starting from the 
Red Sea. 

Long Central Africa. 

Johnson .... The Kilima-Njaro Expedition. 1886. Illus. 

A very interesting account of his journey to this mountain, and his 
attempt to ascend to the summit. 

Speke .... The Discovery of the Source of the Nile. Illus. 
Burton .... The Lake Region. 
Zanzibar. 2 vols. 



Barth .... Central Africa. 3 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Dennet .... Seven Years in the Congo District, Illus. 1887 
Du Chaillu . . Discoveries in Equatorial Africa. 
Stories of the Gorilla Country. 
Ashango Land. 
Many of his statements about the gorilla have been questioned by subse- 
quent travellers. 

Geduie .... Lake Regions. 

Gives the details of the fauna, flora, and people. 

Johnson .... The River Congo. 



474 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Livingstone . . Last Journals. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Petherick . . . Central Africa. 2 vols. 

Jephson ... In the Soudan Provinces. Illustrated. 1890. 
Pringle . . Across the Country between the Shire, Zambesi, 

and Quaqua in Eastern Africa. 
Shows the present condition of the people. 
Poole .... Sierra Leone. 

Parke .... Equatorial Africa. Illustrated. 1891. 
Skertchly . . Dahoray. Fully illustrated. 
Thompson . . . Eastern Equatorial Africa. Illustrated. 
SOUTHWORTH . . Four Thousand Miles of African Travel. Fully 

illustrated. 
Ward .... With the Congo Cannibals. 
Wilson . '. ' . . Uganda and Egyptian Soudan. 2 vols. 
Gessi .... Seven Years in the Soudan. 1892. 

Egypt. 

Ebers Egypt. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 

Lane-Poole* . . Modern Egyptians. 2 vols. 
Graphic, giving just what is needed for the class-room. 

Manning * . . . Land of the Pharaohs. Fully illustrated 
Warren .... Life on the Nile. 

Gives very minutely the details of the trip. 

Warner .... Winter on the Nile. 

Stuart .... Egypt. Fully illustrated. 

Nile Gleanings. Illustrated. 

Abney .... Thebes. Photos. 

Sharpe .... Egypt, Nubia, etc. Photos. 

Smith* .... Attractions of the Nile. 2 vols. 

Butler .... Court-Life in Egypt. 1888. 

Written by an English scholar who was a tutor for the two sons of the 
khedive. 



Adams .... Egypt : Natural History, Geology, etc. 

Baker .... Nile Tributaries. Illustrated. 

Bartlett . . . Nile Boat. Illustrated. 

Belzoni .... Pyramids, Temples, etc. - Illustrated. 
Considered very high authority on the subject. 

Eden The Nile without a Dragoman. 

Edwards ... A Thousand Miles up the Nile. Fully illus. 

Field On the Desert of Egypt. 



AFRICA 



475 



Fitzgerald . . Suez Canal. 2 vols. 
LoRiNG .... Egypt. Fully illustrated. 
McGregor . . . Rob Roy on the Jordan. 

The first pages contain some interesting notes on Cairo, Nile, etc. 

PETR16 .... The Pyramids. 

Prime .... Boat-Life in Egypt. 

Miss Edwards . Pharaohs, Fellahs, etc. Illustrated. 1891. 

St. John .... Egypt and Nubia. 

Wallace . . . Egypt and the Egyptian Interests. 

Whately . . . Among the Huts in Egypt. Illustrated. 

Werner .... Nile Sketches. Colored illustrations. 

Northern Africa. 

De Amicis . . . Morocco. Fully illustrated. 
Graham .... Travels in Tunisia. Fully illustrated. 
The illustrations are very unique and attractive. 

De Hesse-Wartegg.* Tunis. Illustrated. 
Parkyns . . . Abyssinia. Illustrated 
Playfair . . . Algeria and Tunis. Illustrated. 
Hentz .... March to Magdala. 



Cowan . 
Edwards 



HOWLY . 

Lesseps . 
Ried . . 
Stutfield 
Townshend 



Morocco. 

Algeria. 

Great Thirst Land. 

Suez Canal. 

The Suez Canal. 

Tunis. 

Through Morocco. 

Tunis. Hunting. 



1886. 



Boyle* . 

Baker 

Leyland. 

Sheldon 

Atcherley 

Baines . 

Anderssen 



Southern Africa. 

To the Cape for Diamonds. 

A Year's Housekeeping in South Africa. 

South Africa. Photos. 

Yankee Girls in Zululand. Illustrated. 

Trip to Boerland. 

Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa. Photos. 

Lake Ngami. 



476 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Gumming . . . Hunting in South Africa. 

Describes the process of hunting Hons, and gives many facts about their 
habits. 
HOLUB .... Seven Years in Southern Africa. 
Farini .... Through the Kalahari Desert. Illustrated. 
Harris .... Sports of Southern Africa. Colored illus. 

Ashe Zulu Campaign. 

Brooks .... Natal. Photos. 

Chapman . . . Southern Africa — Interior. 2 vols. 

Dixie Zululand. 

Fern Off to the Wilds — Natal. 

Kerr ..... The Far Interior. 

Jenkinson . . . Zulu. 

Peace Natal. 

A reliable account of this British colony. 
Richards . . . Transvaal. 
Taylor .... South Africa. 
Theal .... Boers of South Africa. 

Miscellaneous. 

Jones * . . . . Explorations and Discoveries. Fully illustrated 
Contains condensed accounts of the different explorers. 

Johnson .... Stanford's Compendium. Illustrated. 

A popular cyclopaedia of the country. 

Malony * . . . Forestry of West Africa. 1887. 

Interesting facts about the vegetation. 
Oliver .... Madagascar. 2 vols. 

A good reference book. 

Weeks .... Azores. 
Faulkner . . . Elephant Hunts. 
Shaw Madagascar and France. 

The first part of the book is devoted to the relation between France and 
Madagascar, but the rest of the book contains much to interest the geogra- 
pher and naturalist. 

Gill Six Months in Ascension. 

An interesting account of life in this out-of-the-way place. 



Adams .... Hair-breadth Escapes. 
Baker .... Summer among the Azores. 



AFRICA AND ASIA 



477 



BOARNE 

Ellis . 



Field 
Ward 
Kingston . 
Markham . 

MiTCHINSON 

McDonald 
Mullen 
Kendall . 
Reade . . 
Sheldon (Mrs 
Stone . 
Selour 
Vyse . 
Wells 
Wilson 
Wilkinson . 

ZiNCKE . . 



Heroes of African Discovery. 

West Africa. 

African Islands. 

On the Desert. 

My Life with Stanley. 

Great African Travellers. 

Abyssinia Expedition. 

Senegambia. 

Heathen Africa. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Twelve Months in Madagascar. 

Madeira. (Small.) 

Western Africa. 

Sultan to Sultan. 1892. 

Teneriffe. 2 vols. 

A Hunter's Wanderings. Illustrated. 

Pyramids of Gizeh. 3 vols. Illustrated. 

Miss Tinne's Life. 

The Egypt of the Past. Colored illustrations. 

Ancient Egyptians. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 

Egypt of the Pharaohs, and the Khedive. 



ASIA 



Arabia. 



Palgrave . . . Arabia. 2 vols. 

An insight into the character and customs of the wild Bedouin tribes. 

Taylor .... Arabia. 
Blunt .... Bedouin Tribes. 

A Pilgrimage to Nejd. 
Doughty . . Northern Arabia. 

A thorough study of the people and the country. 



Field On the Desert of Arabia. 

Fogg Land of the Arabian Nights. 

Jessup .... Women of the Arab. 

Burckhardt . . Travels in Arabia. 2 vols. 

Naugham . . . The Alps of Arabia. 



478 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Thompson * 
Williams * 
Prejevalsky 

Griffis * . 
Colquhoun 

FlELDE 

Eden* 

MOUHAT 

Norman 
Lowell 

a sketch of 



CHINA 

Ten Years' Travels. Fully illustrated. 
The Middle Kingdom. 2 vols. Fully illustrated 
Mongolia. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Across Tian Shan. 
Corea, the Hermit Nation. 
Across Chryse. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Pagoda Shadows. Illustrated. 
China and Corea. 

Indo-China. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 
France in the Far East. 
Korea. Photos, 
the geography, the climate, and the coast of the country. 



Atkinson 
Anderson 
Bogle 
doolittle 

GiLMOUR 

Gill . . 
Hemny . 



Hue. . 

HOSIE . 

Jagor . . 

LOFTUS . 

Margary 

MiTFORD 

Nevins . 
Oliphant 
Opport . 
Piarsetsky 
Ross . , 
Wright 
Williamson 
Williamson 



Travels near the Amoor. 

Mandalay to Momien. 

Tibet. 

Social Life of the Chinese. 2 vols. 

Among the Mongols. 

Rivers of Golden Land. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Cross and Dragon. 

Pictures of Real Life in Canton. 

Tartary and Tibet. 

Three Years in Western China. 

Travels in the Philippines. 

Isthmus of Kra. 

China. 

To Cabul. 

China and the Chinese. 

China and Japan. 

Forbidden Land. 

Russian Travellers in Mongol. 2 vols. Illus. 

Corea. 

China. 8 vols. 

Old Highways in China. 

Observations of Every-Day Life. 



ASIA 



479 



Stanley . 
Thomson 
Prime. . 
Manning 
McGregor 
Field . . 
Temple . 

RiTTER . 

Tristram 
Merrill. 
McLeod . 

Through Egypt 
people, customs, c 



Holy Lando 

Sinai and Palestine. 

The Land and tiie Book. 2 vols. 

Tent Life in the Holy Land. 

Those Holy Hills. Fully illustrated. 

Rob Roy on the Jordan. 

Among the Holy Hills. 

Picturesque Palestine. Colored illustrations. 

The Geography of Palestine. 4 vols. 

Palestine. Fully illustrated. 

East of the Jordan. 

Half- Hours in the Holy Land. 
Palestine, and Syria, with graphic descriptions of scenery, 
ties, etc. 



Barker 

Bryce 
Burt . 

CONDER 

Drake 
Hill . 
Martin 
Rogers 

TiLLOTSON 

Wilson . 



Syria and Egyyt. 2 vols. 

Transcaucasia and Ararat. 

Palestine. Fully illustrated. 

Heth and Moab. 

Unexplored Syria. 2 vols. 

Sinai and Western Palestine. Illustrated. 

A Visit to the Holy Land. 

Domestic Life in Palestine. 

Palestine. Fully illustrated. 

Picturesque Palestine. Fully illustrated. 



Rousselet 
Urwick* 



Temple 



India. 

India and its Native Princes. Fully illustrated 

Indian Pictures. Fully illustrated. 

Indian Alps. Fully illustrated. 

India in 1880. 

Men and Events of my Time. 

Land of the Veda. 

Hindoos as they are. 



Butler* 
BosE*. , 

A graphic description of the manners and customs of the people. 

Eden India, Historical and Descriptive. 

HoRNADAY . . . Two Years in the Jungle. Illustrated 

A very interesting hunting-lrip. 



48o 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Matheson 
Stone 
Vincent . 
Wheeler 
Wilson . 



England to Delhi. Fully illustrated. 

Illustrated India. 

Land of the White Elephant. 

Prince of Wales' Visit to India. 

The Abode of Snow. 

Rambles in Northern India. Photos. 



Adams . 
Atkinson 
Arnold . 
Baker . 



Naturalist in India. 
Social Life in India. 
Indian Hills. 2 vols. 
Ceylon, 



Hunting adventures. 

BuRB RIDGE . . . The Garden of the Sun. Illustrated. 

Caird The Land and the People. 

(Cassell's) . . . India. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Chunder . . . Travels of a Hindoo. 2 vols. 

Cunningham . . British India and its Rulers. 

Day Bengal Peasant Life. 

Duff Indian Journey. 

Elliot .... A Planter in the Jungles of Mysore. 2 vols. 111. 

Frazer .... Sporting Life in India. 

Gordon .... Our Trip to Burmah. Photos. 

Grant .... History of India. Illustrated. 2 vols. 

Griffin .... Famous Monuments of India. Photos. 

Haeckel . . . Travels in India and Ceylon. 

Henderson . . Lahore to Yorkand. 

Hov^E .... Every-day Life in India. Illustrated. 

The author lived with the people, and could talk their language. 

Hunter .... The Indian Empire. 

King A Civilian's Wife in India. Illustrated. 

Jennings . . . Gold-fields of India. Illustrated. 

Lambert ... A Trip to Cashmere. 

Marvin .... Russian Advance to India. 

Malleson (Lord Clive). Frontiers of the Indian Empire. 

McKenzie . . . The Romantic Land of Hind. 

Marshall . . . Southern India. Photos. 

Mateer .... Native Life in Travancore. Illustrated. 

Oldfield . . . Sketches from Nepaul. Colored illustrations. 



ASIA 



481 



Robinson . 


. . Under the Sun. 




In my Indian Garden. 




Under the Punkah. 


Russell . . 


. . Tour of the Prince of Wales. 


Ross . . . 


. Land of the Five Rivers. 


Taylor . • 


. . India, China, etc. 


Wright . . 


. . Nepaul. Illustrated. 



Illustrated. 



Japan. 

Griffis .... The Mikado's Empire. Fully illustrated. 
Morse .... Japanese Homes. Fully illustrated. 

A complete description with pen and pencil, of the Japanese household, by 
one who lived with them for several years. 

Rein Japan. Photos. 

Based upon a residence of two years in this country. 
Bird* .... Japan. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

The first volume is a very racy, and wonderfully interesting, account of the 
country and people. Many parts of the book can be read with profit to upper 
classes. 

Eden Japan. Historical and descriptive. 



Ed. Arnold 
Alcock . . 
Adams . . 
Black . . 
Chamberlain 
Faulds . . 

Sketches of 
people. 

Le Gendre 

MORSMAN . 

Oliver . . 
Sartow . . 
Taylor . . 



. Japonica. Illustrated. 
. The Capital of the Tycoon. 2 vols. 
Historical Japan. 2 vols. 
Young Japan. 2 vols. Historical. 
. Things Japanese. 
. Nine Years in Niphon, Japan. 
Japanese manners by a medical man who practised among these 



Progressive Japan. 

Japan. Japan by Norman. Illustrated. 

On and off Duty. China and Japan. Illus, 

Handbook of Japan. 

Visit to India, China, and Japan. 



Persia. 

Arnold * . . . Through Persia by Caravan. 2 vols. 
Bassett .... Persia, the Land of the Immans. 

A full and graphic description of the author's residence and travels. 



482 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Baker 
Chesney 

FR.ASER . 
GOLDSMID 
MOUNSEY 

Bird . . 



Persia. 

Euphrates. 

Persia. Historical and descriptive. 

Eastern Persia. 

Caucasus and Persia. 

In Persia. 



Siberia. 

NoRDENSKiOLD . Arctic Voyage. Illustrated. 

NiERNEjowsKi . Siberian pictures. 

Melville ... In the Lena Delta. Illustrated. 

Barnaby . . . Ride to Khiva. 

Kennan . . . , . . Tent-life in Siberia. Exiles in Siberia. 

Lansdell . . . Through Siberia. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 

Merchie . . . Overland Route. Fully illustrated. 

MacGahan . . . Campaigning on the Oxus. Illustrated. 

, The author was called by the Russians " a man of mettle" for his wonder- 
ful ride to Khiva. 

Pumpelly . . . Across America and Asia. 

Not new, but full of interesting information, written in a delightful style. 



Atkinson . 

Abbott . . 

De Long . 

Erman . . 

GiLMOUR . 

Schuyler* 

Seebohm . 

Wood . . 



Siberia. 
To Khiva. 

Voyage of the Jeannette. 2 vols. 
Travels in Siberia. 2 vols. 
Among the Mongols. 
Turkistan. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
East Siberia. 
Lake Aral. 



Miscellaneous. 

Ballou* . . . Due West, 1887. 

Floyer .... Unexplored Beloochistan. Illustrated. 

Knox Overland through Asia. (Tartar Life.) 

Field In the East. 2 vols. Colored illustrations. 

Gordon .... The Roof of the World. Illustrated. 

Keane .... Stanford's Compendium. Illustrated. 
A well-written cyclopaedia of the whole of Asia. A standard work. 

Eastern Geography. 



ASIA 



483 



Temple . 
Wilson . 
De Windt 



Oriental Experiences. 
The Abode of Snow. 
Siberia. 



Haeckel ... a Visit to Ceylon. 

A German naturalist's account of this island. 

BONOMI . . 

BURNABY . 

Campbell . 

Clarke . . 

CUMMING . 



Cunynghame 



Nineveh and its Palaces. 

On Horseback through Asia Minor. 2 vols. 

Wild Tribes of Khondistan. Illustrated. 

Ten Great Religions. 

Camp and Jungle. Illustrated. 

From the Hebrides to the Himalayas. 

The Black Sea, Caucasus, and Caspian. Illus. 



Duke Kabul Campaign. 



Atkinson . 
Bell . . . 
Bock . . . 
Ellis . . . 
Field . . . 
bouvalot . 
rockhili. . 
Harriman . 

HUNTLY . . 

Keane. . . 



Upper and Lower Amoor. 

The Maldive Islands. 

Temples and Elephants. Upper Siam. 

On a Raft — Syria, Kurdistan. 2 vols. Illus. 

Egypt to Japan. 

Across Thibet. Illustrated. 1892. 

The Land of the Lamas. 1892. 

In the Orient. 

Travels, Sports, and Politics. Illustrated. 

Hunting Adventures in Western Asia. 

My Journey to Medinah. 

Six Months in Mecca. 
KiNGLAKE . . . Eothen; or, Travels in the East. 
Lansdell . . . Russian Central Asia. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Lowell .... Korea. Photos 

A sketch of the geography, the climate, and the coast of the country. 

MacCregor . . Beloochistan. Illustrated. 

Marvin .... Merv, and the Man-stealing Turkomans. 

Mounsey . . . The Caucasus and Persia. 

Newman . . . Babylon and Nineveh. Illustrated. 

O'Donovan . . The Merv Oasis. 2 vols. 

Schumacher. . Across the Jordan. Fully illustrated. 

Scott-Stevenson, Our Ride through Asia Minor. 

Tefler .... Crimea and Transcaucasia. 2 vols. 

Vambery . . . Travels in Central Asia. 



484 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Vambery . . . Across the Turkoman Desert to Khiva, Bokhara. 

Leonowens . . Our Asiatic Cousins. Illustrated. 1889. 

Wallace . . . The Malay Archipelago. 

Warburton . . The Crescent and the Cross. 

Warner ... In the Levant. 

EUROPE 

France. 

De Amicis . . . Studies of Paris. 

Greene .... French Pictures. Fully illustrated. 

Sala Paris Herself Again. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Hamerton.'. . Paris. Fully illustrated. 
Descriptive of its architecture and topography. 

Jackson .... Court of the Tuileries. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Murray .... High Life in Paris under the Republic. 

Robinson . . . Parks and Gardens of Paris. 

Sainte-Beuve . Monday Chats. 



Baring-Gould 
Bonwick . . 

COLANGE . . 

Dickens . . . 
Edmands . . 



HiLLSBRAND . 

Hamerton . . 

Describes the 

Hutchinson . 
Jerrold . . . 
Macquoid . . 



Pennell 
Powell . 
St. John . 
Stevenson 



. In Troubadour-Land. 1891- 

, French Colonies and their Resources. 

. French Pictures. 

. Dictionary of Paris. 

. Holidays in Eastern France. 

A Year in Western France. 

French Home-Life. 
. France, and the French of the 19th Century. 
. Round my House. 
country life and scenery. 
. Summer Holidays in Brittany. Illustrated. 
. At Home in Paris. 
. Normandy. Illustrated. 

Maritime Alps. Illustrated. 

In the Ardennes. Illustrated. 

Through Brittany. Illustrated. 
. Through France on a Tricycle. 1888. 
. Our Boating Trip from Bordeaux to Paris. 
. Purple Tints of Paris. 
. Travels with a Donkey. 



EUROPE 



485 



Turner .... Wanderings by the Loire. Illustrated. 

Rivers of France. Illustrated. 
Vincent. ... In the Shadows of the Pyrenees. 
ViZETELLY . . . Paris in Peril. 2 vols. Illustrated. 
Barker . . . Wayfaring in France. Illustrated. 1890. 



Germany. 

Hawthorne . . Saxon Studies. 

Greene .... Pictures of the Fatherland. Fully illustrated. 

Brown .... An American Family in Germany. 

Baring-Gould . Germany. (Small.) Illustrated. 

Hall German Culture. 

Wood The Black Forest. Fully illustrated. 

ViZETELLY . . . Berlin. 2 vols. Fully illustrated. 

RuGGLES .... Germany seen without Spectacles. 

George .... Etchings on the Mosel. 

Stinde .... Sketches of Berlin Life. 

A picture of middle-class life. 

Hart German Universities. 

Pictures German student-life in its true colors. 



Basherville 
Brace . . 
Blackburn 
Chetwzynd 
Didon . 
Howitt . 
Malcom . 
Mayhew 
Rimmer . 
Stieler . 

SCHMID . 

Seguin . 
tomlinson 
Waring . 

Picturesque 

Watts . . 



, Legends of the Rhine. 

Home-Life in Germany. 

The Hartz Mountains. 

Life in a German Village. 

The Germans. 
, Student-Life of Germany. 
, Pictures of German Life. 

German Life and Manners 

Early Homes of Prince Albert 

The Rhine. 

Bavarian Highlands. 

Black Forests. Illustrated. 

Camp-Life on the Weser. 
, The Bride of the Rhine. Illustrated, 
descriptions from a row-boat journey on the river Mosel 
. . An Art-Student in Munich. 2 vols. 



Illustrated. 

2 vols. Illustrated 
Illustrated. 



486 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 





Great Britain. 


Patten . . » . 


England as seen by an American Banker. 


Manning . . . 


English Pictures, Fully illustrated. 


Hawthorne (Mrs 


.) Notes on England and Italy. 


Hawthorne (N.) 


Our Old Home. 


Pennell . . . 


On the Thames. 1891. 


Greene .... 


Scottish Pictures. Fully illustrated. 


Carnegie . . . 


An American Four-in-Hand in Britain. 




Our Own Country. 5 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Contemporary England. 3 vols. 


ESCOTT .... 


Emerson . . . 


English Traits. 


Taine . 


Notes on England. 


Smith .... 


Summer in Skye. 


Hubner .... 


Through the British Empire. 


White .... 


England "Without and Within. 


Beattie .... 


Castles and Abbeys of England. 


Chandler . . . 


Bicycle Tour of England and Wales. 


Booth .... 


In Darkest England. 


Craik .... 


Instrumental Journey through Cornwall. • 


Elwes .... 


Castles of Sussex. 




Five Years of Penal Servitude. 


HiSSEY .... 


Across England. 


Hall .... 


Ireland. 


Hersey . . . 


An Old-fashioned Journey through England and 




Wales. 


Press .... 


In the West of England. 


HOWITT . . . 


The Rural Life of England. 


Hunnewell . . 


Lands of Scott. 


Land .... 


Oxford to London. 


Lee 


Stratford-on-Avon. 


Lefroy .... 


Ruined Abbeys of Yorkshire. 


HiSSEY .... 


Through the Eastern Counties. 


Leslie .... 


Our River. 


Martineau . . 


English Lakes. 


Palmer .... 


The Tyne, etc. 


Pennant . . . 


Journey from London to Isle of Wight. 


Silloway . . . 


Cathedral Towns of Great Britain. 



EUROPE 487 

Smith .... Land of Outer Hebrides. 

Description of England. 
Sumner .... The Avon. 
Stevenson . . . Edinburgh. 

Taylor .... Old Malls in Lancashire and Cheshire. 
Walton .... Welsh Scenery. 

English Lakes. 
Wilson .... Old Edinburgh. 

Land of Burns. 
Winter .... Trip to England. 

Holland. 

De Amicis . . . Holland. 

Harvard . . . Picturesque Holland. 

Wood Through Holland. Illustrated. 



Bird Land of Dykes and Windmills. 

Boughton . . . Sketching-Rambles in Holland. 

Hare Holland. 

Waring .... A Farmer's Vacation. Illustrated. 

Italy. 

Hare Walks in Rome. 2 vols. 

Days near Rome. 2 vols. 

Cities of Italy. 4 vols. 
HowELLS . . . Italian Journeys. 
Manning . . . Italian Pictures. Fully illustrated. 

Story Vallombrosa. 

Taine Rome and Naples. 

Florence and Venice. 
Hawthorne (Mrs.), Notes on England and Italy. 
Arnold .... An European Mosaic. 



Benson .... Art and Nature in Italy. 

Brown .... Life in the Lagoons. 

Bianciardi (Mrs.), At Home in Italy. 

Bartlett . . . Pictures from Sicily. 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Burn . . . 
Church . . 
Carr . . . 

■ Shows the 

Cross . . . 
Devereaux 
Johnson 

Elliot . . 
Freshfield 
Freeman 

Forbes . . 

Gallanga . 

Gebharts . 

Hillard. . 

Horner . . 

Jarves . . 

Nichols . . 
Symonds 



Scott . . 
Trollops 
Wells . 
Westropp 

ViLLARI . 

Yriarte . 



. . Old Rome. 

. . Life in the Days of Cicero, 

. . North Italian Folk, 
life of the common people. 

. . Edens of Italy. 

. Fair Italy, 

. Florence. Illustrated, 1891. 

. , An Idle Woman in Sicily, 2 vols. 

. , Italian Alps. 

. , Venice. 

, , Rambles in Rome. 

. . Italy Revisited. 

. . Roman Corners and Florentine Mosaics. 

. . Six Months in Italy. 2 vols. 

. . Walks in Florence. 2 vols, 

. . Italian Rambles, 

, . The Roman Forum. 

, , Sketches and Studies in Italy. 2 vols. 

Italian By-ways. 

. . A Nook in the Apennines. 

. . A Peep behind the Scenes at Rome. 

. . The Amphitheatre of Ancient Rome. 

. . Early and Imperial Rome. 

. . On Tuscan Hills and Venetian Waters. 

. . Florence. 



Norway. 

DuChaillu*. . The Land of the Midnight Sun. 2 vols. Fully 

illustrated. 

Vincent .... Norse, Lapp, and Finn. 

Stone Norway in June. Illustrated. 

Pritchette . . Gamble Norge. Fully illustrated. 

Wood Sweden and Norway. Illustrated. (Small.) 

Rae Land of the North Wind. Illustrated. 

Forbes .... Norway and its Glaciers. Fully illustrated. 



Arnold . . 
Caton . . 
Catherine . 
Kent , . . 



A Summer Holiday. 
A Summer in Norway. 
The Fun on the Fjords. 
Norway to the North Cape. 



EUROPE 



489 



McFarlan . . . Behind the Scenes in Norway. 

MacKinnon . . Lapland Life. Illustrated. 

Smith .... Tent-Life with the Gypsies. Illustrated. 

Three in Norway. By Two of Them. 
TVLER .... Story of a Scandinavian Summer. 
Williams . . . Through Norway. Illustrated. 

Russia. 

Wallace* . . . Russia. 2 vols. 

Contains a fund of information which is authoritative. 

Guild* .... Britons and Muscovites. 1888. 

Contains entertaining pen-pictures of sights and scenes in Russia. 

WOHL Land of the Czar. 

Gives a full, complete account of the people and their history. 

BouTON .... Round about to Moscow. 1887. 

Clive Caucasus (Hunting). 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Seebohm • . . Siberia. Fully illustrated. 
Marvin .... Caspian Region. Illustrated. 
Russians at Merv. Illustrated. 

Sala Russia. 

Freshfield . . Central Caucasus. Illustrated. 
Contains a fine picture of Mount Elbruz. 

Proctor .... A Russian Journey. 

Tromholt . . . Under the Rays of the Aurora Borealis. 

A full description of this phenomena, and a description of the Lapps and 
Kvaens. 



Buckley 

Christie 

Coape. . 

Christin 

Dixon 

Edwards 

Gallenga 

Grove . 

Greene . 

Hoffman 

Johnston 



The Land of the Czar and the Nihilist. 

Men and Things in Russia. 

A Prisoner of War in Russia. 

Russia, Past and Present. Illustrated. 

Free Russia. 

The Russians at Home and Abroad. 2 vols- 

A Summer Tour in Russia. 

The Frosty Caucasus. Illustrated. 

Army-Life in Russia. 

Leisure Hours in Russia. 

The Fair at Nijni Novgorod. 

A Trip up the Volga. 



490 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



MoRLEY .... Russian Life. 

Rae The Wiiite Sea Peninsula. Illustrated. 

Stepniak . . . Underground Russia. 

St. Clair . . . Bulgaria. 

Schuyler . . . Peter the Great. 2 vols. 

Stoddard . . . Across Russia. 1891. 

TiLLEY .... Russia. 

TouRGENiEF . . Virgin Soil. 

WoLLEY .... Sport in the Crimea and Caucasus. 



Spain. 

De Amicis . . . Spain. 

Manning ... . Spanish Pictures. Fully illustrated. 
Lathrop * . . . Spanish Vistas. Illustrated. 
Hale * . . . . Seven Spanish Cities. 
Sparkling and Bright. 
BoDFlSH .... Through Spain on Donkey-back. Illustrated. 
The sketches and descriptions are both unique, and just what is needed in 
the schoolroom. 

Taine The Pyrenees. Illustrated. 



Ober . . 
Burke . 
Campion 
Deverell 
Day . 
Duncan 
Downes 
Elliott 
Field . 
Gallenga 
Harrison 
Hay . . 

LOMAS 

Describes 

Patch 
Rose . . 
Stone 
Thieblin 



. The Knockabout Club. 1889. 

. Spanish Salt. 

. On Foot in Spain. 

. All around Spain. 

. From the Pyrenees, to the Pillars of Hercules. 

. The English in Spain. 

. Spanish Ways and By-ways. 

. Idle Women in Spain. 2 vols. 

. Ten Days in Spain. 

. Fifteen Years in Spain and Portugal. 2 vols. 

. Spain in Profile. 

. Castilian Days. 

. Sketches in Spain, 
art and architecture. 

. Sunny Spain. 

. Among the Spanish People. 

. Tour with Cook through Spain. 

. Spain and the Spaniards. 2 vols. 



EUROPE 



491 



Tyndall 



Manning 
Whymper 
Butler . 
Caffer . 
Wilson . 



Byers . . . 
Dent . . . 
Dixon . . 
Champney . 
Gessell-Fels 
Girdlestone 
Le Mesurien 
Malleson . 
Marcet . . 
Westall . 



Switzerland. 

Hours of Exercise in the Alps. Illustrated. 

Glaciers of the Alps. Illustrated. 

Mountaineering. Illustrated. 

Swiss Pictures. Fully illustrated. 

Scrambles among the Alps. 

Alps and Sanctuaries. Illustrated. 

Switzerland and Lake Constance. Fully ilhis. 

Alpine Ascents. 

Gallery of the Celebrated Landscapes of Switzer 

land. Photos. 
Switzerland and the Swiss. 
Above the Snow-Line. 
Switzerland. 
In Switzerland. 189O. 
Switzerland : Its Scenery and People. 
The High Alps. 

Impromptu Ascent of Mont Blanc. 
Rambles in Alpine Lands. Illustrated. 
Swiss and Southern Health Resorts. 
Tales and Traditions of Switzerland. 



De Amicis 
Hamlin . 
McCoAN . 
Gallenga 
Pool . . 
Brack ett 
Gladstone 



Turkey. 

Constantinople. 

Twenty Years among the Turks. 

Our New Protectorate. 

Turks, Costumes. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

People of Turkey. 2 vols. 

Conquest of Turkey. Illustrated. 

Slavonic Provinces of Turkey. 2 vols. Illus. 



Champney 

Arnold 

Baker 

Davis . 

Evans 

Frazer 

Gambia 

Newton 



Three Vassar Girls in Turkey. 1889. 

From the Levant. 

Turkey. 

Life in Asiatic Turkey. Illustrated. 

Through Bosnia on Foot. Illustrated. 

Turkish Highlands. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Servia. Fully illustrated. 

Travels in the Levant. 2 vols. 



492 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Miscellaneous. 



Reclus .... Europe. 5 vols. Fully illustrated. 
Holmes .... Our Hundred Days in Europe. 
Pitman .... European Breezes. 

The author describes, in a very fresh and sparkling manner, her travels in 
Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland. The book is full of fun. 

Ramsay .... Stanford's Compendium on Europe. 
A full cyclopaedia. 

Guild * . . . . Over the Ocean. 
Abroad Again. 
England, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, etc., are herein graphically 
depicted. 

Darwin .... What Darwin saw. 

Kneeland . . . Iceland. 

WOLSKI .... Poland. 

Warner. . . . Saunterings. 

Sargeant . . . New Greece. 

Hare Holland and Scandinavia. 

Field Killarney to Golden Horn. 

Thompson . . . Beaten Paths. 

An account of an European tour made by a young lady, in company with 
six other ladies, " all alone." 

Aldrich .... From Ponkapog to Pesth. 



Illustrated. (Small.) 
2 vols. Illustrated. 



Bartol . . 


. Pictures of Europe. 


Snider . . 


. A Walk in Hellas. 


Farren . . 


. A Tour in Greece. Fully illustrated. 


Waring . . 


. Tyrol. Illustrated. (Small.) 


Anderson . 


. Life in Denmark. 


Baker . . 


. In the East. 




Cyprus. 


Bird . . . 


. . The Land of Dykes and Windmills. 


Baring-Gould 


. Iceland. Fully illustrated. 


Barton . . 


. . Ultima Thule. 2 vols. 


Brassey . . 


. Sunshine and Storm in the East. 


BURKLEY . 


. . Bulgaria. 


Cox . . . 


. . The Isles of the Princess. (Marmosa.) 


Chirol . . 


. . Twixt Greek and Turk. 



EUROPE 



493 



Coles . . 
Cross. . 

Gumming 



Copper . . 
conybeare 
Dixon . . 
Darley . . 
fonblanque 
Gage . . . 
Geikie . . 
Hunt (H.) . 
Harrington 
Harriman . 

A chatty narrative of travel 
Holden . . 



Kay . . 
Long 
Thomas 
Lock . . 
Molly . 
O'Meara 
Ninde 
Oswald . 

RODWELL 

Seddall 
Lee . . 
St. Clair 
Shaip . . 
Smith 

Thompson 

TiSSOT 

White 

Wright 

Tucker 



Summer Travelling in Iceland. Illustrated. 

Round about the Carpathians. 

From the Hebrides to the Himalayas. 2 vols. 

Fully illustrated. 
Shores and Cities of the Border Sea. Illustrated. 
Iceland. 
British Cyprus. 

Sketches Abroad. Fully illustrated. 
Five Weeks in Iceland. 
A Leisurely Journey in Europe. 1886. 
The Great Ice-Age. 
Bits of Travel abroad. 
Afterglow European Travel. 
In the Orient. 



through Europe. (Dr. 



A Summer Jaunt 
Tourjee's party). 
Hungary. 
Cyprus. 

Sweden. 1892. 
Iceland. 

The Passion Play. 
Story of Life in Russian Poland. 
Two alone in Europe. 
By Fell and Fjord. Iceland. 
Southern Europe. Fully illustrated. 
Malta, Past and Present. 
European Days. 1890. 
Bulgaria. 
Up in the North. 
Tent-Life with English Gypsies. 
Glimpses of Greek Life and Society. 
Through Cyprus with the Camera. Fully illus. 
Unknown Hungary. 2 vols. 
Holidays in Tyrol. 
Adventures in Servia. 
Life and Society in Eastern Europe. 



Describes the different classes and conditions of people in Hungary. 



Blake . . . 
Dowie . . . 

EDVlfARI)S(Miss) 
M ALLOC K . . 



A Summer Holiday in Europe, li 
A Girl in the Karpathians. 1891. 
Austria. Illustrated. 1890. 
Cyprus. 1889. 



494 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



OCEANICA 



Australia. 



RUSDEN .... History of Australia. 

Australian Handbook. 
Ballou .... Under the Southern Cross. 1888. 
Through Tasmania, Samoa, Sandwich Islands, and Australia. 

Eden Australia. 

Victoria in 1880. Fully illustrated. 

Wallace . . . Stanford's Compendium. 

A full cyclopfedia. 

The Malay Archipelago. Illustrated. 
Vincent . . . . Through and through the Tropics. 



Ballou . . 

BONWICK . 

Dawson . . 

Grant . . 

Powell . . 

Praed . . 

Robinson . 
Smyth . 

Sterling . 
Warburton 

Vincent . . 



Under the Southern Cross. 1890. 

Australia. 

Australian Aborigines. 

Bush-Life in Queensland. 2 vols. 

New Homes. Fully illustrated. 

Australia. Illustrated. 

New South Wales. 

Australia. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

A Ride in North Queensland. 

Across Australia. 

Thirty Thousand Miles of Travel. 



Wallace* . 
Brassey . . 
Bock . . . 
Cooper* 
cummings* 



MACLEOD . . . 

Van Hochelette. 
Rqmilly. . . . 



Miscellaneous. 

Island Life. 

Tahiti. Fine photos. 

Head Hunter of Borneo. Colored illustrations. 

Coral Lands. 2 vols. Photos. 

At Home in Fiji. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Fire Fountains. 2 vols. (Hawaii.) Illustrated 

A Lady's Cruise. 2 vols. Photos. 

The Far East. Fully illustrated. 

New Zealand. Colored illustrations. 

The Western Pacific and New Guinea. 



Notes on the natives, Christian and cannibal. 



THE WORLD 



495 



Turner .... Samoa. 
Bradshaw . . . New Zealand as it is. 

P'ORBES .... A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern 
Archipelago. 
The homes, habits, customs, and amusements of the semi-civihzed people. 

150NWICK . . . Tasmania. Illustrated. 



Bird . 

Bt)WRING 
COAN . 
COOTE 

De Albertis 
De Ricci 
Forbes . 
Francis . 

GiRONlERE 

Hopkins. 
Jagor . . 
Jacob . . 
Lyne . . 

Observations 

Meade . 

MUNDY . 

Palmer . 
Pike . . 
Powell . 
Stoddard 
St. Johnson 

TiNNIE 

Weeks 



The Hawaian Archipelago. 
A Visit to the Philippine Islands, 
Life in Hawaii. 

Wanderings South and East. Fully illustrated. 
New Guinea. 2 vols. 
Fiji. 

Two Years in Fiji. 
Isles of the Pacific. 
Philippine Islands. 
Sandwich Islands. 
Travels in the Philippines. 
Borneo — Sarawak. 2 vols. 
New Guinea. Illustrated, 
scenery and people, with good pictures. 

New Zealand. Colored illustrations. 

Boiling .Springs. (New Zealand.) Photos. 

Kidnapping in South Seas. 

Mauritius. Fully illustrated. 

Cannibals of New Britain. 

Summer Cruising in the South Sea. Illustrated. 

Camping among Cannibals. 

New Zealand. Illustrated. 

Among the Azores. 



THE WORLD 

Reclus .... The Earth and its Inhabitants. 12 vols. Very 
fully illustrated. 
Europe, 5 vols. ; Asia, 4 vols. ; Africa, 3 vols. 

Appleton & Co. have given the world, in these volumes, the largest and 
best illustrated encyclopaedia of geography ever published. 

-Stanford . . . Compendium of Geography and Travel. 6 voLs. 
Illustrated. 

This is the second best encyclopaedia of geography. Published in London. 



496 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Taylor .... Library of Travels. 6 vols. 

Japan, Central Asia, Arabia, Siam, Central Africa, South Africa. 

Foreign Countries and British Colonies. 20 vols, 
or more. Illustrated. (Small.) 
One volume on each of these countries: Denmark, Greece, Switzer- 
land, Austria, Russia, Persia, Japan, Peru, Canada, Sweden and Norway, 
West Indies, New Zealand, France, Egypt, Spain, Turkey in Asia, Aus- 
traha, Holland. 

Reclus .... Bird's-Eye View of the World. Fully illustrated. 

920 pp. Published by Ticknor & Co. 
Putnam .... Library of Travel. 12 vols. 

Spain; Siberia; Constantinople; Holland; England; Abode of Snow; The 
Great Fur Land; South Africa; The Round Trip; Norse, Lapp, and Finn; 
Corea; Rocky Mountains. 

Brown . . .' . . The Countries of the World. 

Vol. i.. North America; vol. ii., United States, Mexico, and West Indies; 
vol. iii., Central and Southern America; vol. iv., Oceanica; vol. v., Asia; 
vol. vi., Africa. 

Pr-ime Around the World. Illustrated. 

Thomson . . . Voyage of the Challenger. Illustrated. 

Wanderings in Four Continents. Illustrated. 

. Due West. Due North. Due South. 

. Travels round the World. Illustrated. 

. Our New^ Way round the World. Illustrated, 

. Round the World in 124 Days. 

. The Desert World. 

. Oceana. 



Ballou* 
Seward 
Coffin , . 
Leyland 

Manning . 
Froude . . 

A visit by the great historian to the English colonies of the world. 
Smith .... The Wonderful Cities of the World. 
Shepard . . . Great Cities of the Modern World. Illustrated. 
Whymper . . . The Fisheries of the World. 
Brown .... Forests of the World. 8 vols. 

Forests of England, Russia, Norway, Finland, South Africa, etc. 



Adams . , 
Bainbridge 
Beauvoir 
Brassey . 
Bridges . 
Gray . . 
Hinchliff 



Heroes of Travel. 

Round the World. 

Voyage round the World. 

Voyage in the Sunbeam. 

A Lady's Travels round the World. 

Round the World. 

Round the World. Illustrated. 



Illustrated. 



BOOKS IN PAPER COVERS 



497 



HiNGTON . . Round the World. 2 vols. Illustrated. 

Humboldt . . . Travels and Researches. 

HIJBNER .... A Ramble round the World. 2 vols. 

Hodden .... All the World over. 2 vols, 

Jones-Barry . . Round the World. 

Peebles .... Around the World. 

Simpson .... A Journey round the World. 

Spry Cruise of the Challenger. Illustrated. 

Verne .... Around the World in Eighty Days. 

WiLKiNS. . . . Curiosities of Travel. 2 vols. 

Vol. i., Polar World, Alps, etc.; vol. ii., Caverns, Volcanoes, Geysers, 
Earthquakes. 

BOOKS IN PAPER COVERS 

A small list of books of travel, in paper covers, is added, 
with price and publisher, for the benefit of teachers who 
have no ready access to public libraries. These books can 
be ordered by mail, the money being sent in postage-stamps. 



Bird . 

Amicis 

Hood . 

Jarves 

Kennan 

Robinson 

Geary . 



Marvin 



De Leon 

Hatton , 

Stone 

Lucas 

Wilson 

Woodward 

Burnaby 
Drysdale , 



Rocky Mountains. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Studies of Paris. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Up the Rhine. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Italian Rambles. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Tent-Life in Siberia. Putnam. 50 cts. 

The Great Fur Land. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Through Asiatic Turkey. Harpers. 15 cts. 

People of Turkey. Harpers. 15 cts. 

Russians of To-day. Harpers. 10 cts. 

At the Gates of Herat. Illus. Harpers. 20 cts. 

Georgia Scenes. Illus. Harpers. 20 cts. 

Brooklyn Bridge. Illus. Harpers. 20 cts. 

Egypt under its Khedives. Harpers. 20 cts. 

To-day in America. Harpers. 20 cts. 

New Guinea. Harpers. 10 cts. 

Zulus. Harpers. 10 cts. 

Abode of Snow. Putnam. 50 cts. 

Hudson River. Illustrated. Appleton. 50 cts. 

Pacific Railroad. Illus. Appleton. 75 cts. 

A Ride to Khiva. Munro. 20 cts. 

In Sunny Lands. Harpers. Illustrated. 25 cts 



498 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Headley . . . Darien Exploring Expedition. Illustrated. Har- 
pers. 15 cts. 

Stepniak . . . Russia under the Tzars. Harpers. Illus. 20 cts. 

DaVies .... Handbook on Africa. Illustrated. Holiness 
Book Company, Reading, Mass. 25 cts. 

Hyatt .... Worms and Crustacea. Heath & Co. 25 cts. 
The Oyster, Clam, and Other Common Mol- 

lusks. 25 cts. 
About Pebbles. ' 10 cts. 

Baker .... Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. Lovell. 
20 cts. 

Zeigler .... Heart of the Alleghanies. Alfred Williams & 
Co., Raleigh, N.C. $1.00. 

Ober Mexican Resources. Estes & Lauriat. 50 cts. 

Strahorn ... To the Rockies and Beyond. The New West 
Publishing Company, Omaha. 50 cts. 

Ballantyne . . Erling, the Bold. Lovell & Co. 20 cts. 

Robinson . . . Under the Sun. Roberts Brothers. 50 cts. 

Buckingham . . Observations upon the Korean Coast, Japanese- 
Korean Ports, and Siberia. Office of Bureau 
of Navigation, Navy Department. 



GEOGRAPHICAL STORIES AND NOVELS 

Many of our best novels describe very accurately the peo- 
ple of the country in which the scene of the story is laid, 
as, for instance, Middlemarch, by George Eliot ; others 
describe both the people and the scenery of the country, 
as Black's Princess of Thide. Many juvenile stories 
describe accurately some country, as Ballantyne's Black 
Ivory. A list of such stories is given below, for some chil- 
dren can only become interested in travel by the help of 
the romantic. The teacher should use good judgment in 
recommending this course of reading, and guard it carefully 
against abuse. No child should be permitted to read more 
than one story a term. 



GEOGRAPHICAL STORIES AND NOVELS 49O 

North America. 

Note. — t Excellent juvenile stori«s. 

Ballantyne . . Hudson's Bay.t 

Every-day life in the wilds of North America. 

Stobles .... The Cruise of the Snow-Bird.t 
A Story of Arctic adventure. 

Hans in his Northern Home. 
Describes Dr. Kane's expedition. 

Ballantyne . . Snowflakes and Sunbeams.t 
Young fur-traders. 

Melville . . . Moby-Dick.t 

Whaling adventures. 

Hall Adrift in the Ice-Fields.t 

HuETT .... Morgan, the Buccaneer. 
Freebooters in the Antilles. 

Macv The Log of the Arethusa. 

Actual life on the ocean. 

Jackson (Helen), Romona. 

The Indian question, and California scenery. 

Hawthorne . . Love, or a Name. 
Workings of New- York City politics. 

HoLBROOK . . . Ten Years among the Mail-Bags. 
Phelps (Miss) . . The Silent Partner. 
Bellamy . . . The Breton Mills. 
Strife between labor and capital. 

Crawford . . . An American Politician. 

Alden .... Four Girls at Chautauqua.t 

Eggleston . . . Circuit Rider. 

Hale Ten Times One is Ten. 

Bolton .... The Present Problem. 

Tripp Student-Life at Harvard. 

Howard. . . . Donald's School-days. r 

Bordeen . . . Roderick Hume. 

HowELLS . . . Their Wedding Journey. 

Hart Miriam Cofifin. 

Whaling and sea life. 

Butler .... Red Cloud. 

A story of the great prairie. 

Taylor .... The Story of Kennett. 
Country life among Friends in Pennsylvania. 



500 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

Kinsman . . . Cadet-Life at West Point. 
Burnett (Mrs.) . Through One Administration. 
Eggleston . . . The Hoosier School-master. 
Cooper .... Leather Stocking Tales. 
Descriptions of Indian character and habits. 

Mathews . . . Enchanted Moccasins. 
Authentic legends of American Indians. 

Russell .... The Frozen Pirate. 

The scene is laid in the Antarctic Ocean, and describes very vividly polar 
life. 

The Wreck of the Grosvenor. 
A charming sea-story. 

Eliot Middlemarch. 

English life TuUy described. 

Brooks .... The Boy Emigrants.! 
Overland travel to California. 

Cable .... The Grandissimes. 

A story of Creole life. 
Kingston ... In the Wilds of Florida. 
Thorpe .... The Hive of the " Bee Hunter." 

Imlay The Emigrants. 

Banditti of the Prairies. 

Hall Legends of the West. 

RoBB Western Border-Life.t 

Pyrnelle . . . Diddie, Dumps, and Tott 

Plantation child-life. 

Farrar .... Eastward Ho ! t 

A trip of Boston boys to the wilds of Maine. 

Higginson . . . Malbone. 

Describes Newport life. 
ScHWATKA . . . The Children of the Cold.t 

Life in the Arctic regions. 
Ballantyne • . The Dog Crusoe, t 

Describes prairie-life. 

The Golden Dream.t 

Adventures in the Far West. 

Thackeray . . The Virginians. 

Scenes in London and Virginia. 
Wellcome . . . The Story of Mellakahtla. 

An account of the work of William Duncan's work among a savage tribe 
of Indians in British Columbia. 



GEOGRAPHICAL STORIES AND NOVELS 5OI 

WiNTHROP . . . John Brent. 

Excellent description of Rocky-Mountain scenery. 

Irving .... Captain Bonneville. 

Underwood . . Lord of Himself. 

Describes Kentucky. 

A Lady's Ranch-Life in Montana. 1887. 
Interesting letters of her life, roughing it in the Far West. 

Ballantvne . . Man on the Ocean.t 

This book describes for boys the different kinds of ocean-craft, from a raft, 
to the " Great Eastern." 

Dana Two Years Before the Mast.t 

Stoddard . . . Two Arrows.t 
A charming Indian story for boys. 

Europe. 

HowELLS . . . Venetian Life. 

Delightful pictures of social and commercial life in Venice. 

Ballantyne . . Chasing the Sun.t 
Rambles in Norway. 

Scott The Pirate. 

Picture of life in the Orkneys. 

Anne of Geierstein. 
Contains a description of Swiss scenery, although Scott had never visited 
Switzerland. 

A Legend of Montrose. 
The scene is near the Trossachs, Scotland. 

Rob Roy. 
Contrasts the wild Highland life with that of Glasgow. 

The Heart of Mid-Lothian. 
The scene is mostly in Scotland. 
Tolstoi .... Anna Karenina. 
Describes Russian life. 

France. 

Longfellow . . Outre-Mer. 

Thackeray . . The Village on the Cliff. 

Ellis Marie. 

Sikes Chateau Frissoe. 

Moncrief . . . The Lycee Boys.t 

French School-life. 

De Witt . . . Motherless.! 



502 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

BuLWER .... The Parisians. 

Kimball . . . Romance of Student-life Abroad. 

MusGRAVE . . . Ten Days in a French Parsonage. 

SuK The Mysteries of Paris. 

England. 

Adams .... School-days at Kingscourt. 

MiTFORD . . . Our "Village. 

James The Smuggler. 

GwYNNE . . . School for Fathers. 

Cambridge . . The Three Miss Kings. 
Life in Australia. 

Fox Hunting. 

Marshall . . . Monsell Digby. 

Country life in a manufacturing district. 

Egan Life in London. 

Eliot Adam Bede. 

Irving .... Bracebridge Hall. 
Ballantyne . . Deep Down.t 

A story of life among the mines of Cornish. 

Black A Princess of Thule. 

Macleod of Dare. 
Vivid descriptions of scenery, life, and manners among the Scotch. 

Aguilar .... Home Influence.! 

Describes beautifully a happy English home under the best of influences. 

Blackmore . . Mary Anerley. 

Describes the coast of England and smuggling operations. 
Besant .... Armorel of Lyonesse. 

Life on the Scilly Islands. 

South America. 

Fernon .... The Reign of Rosas. 
Kingston ... On the Banks of the Amazon. 
Daunt .... Frank Redcliffe.f 
Travel and adventure in Venezuela. 

Hassaurek . . The Secret of the Andes. 
MoNCRlEF . . . The Pampas. 

Adventures in the Argentine Republic. 

Reid Afloat in the Forest. 

Ballantyne . . Martin Rattler.t 

A boy's adventures in the forests of Braail. 



FRENCH WORKS 503 

Central America. 

KiNGSLEY . . . Westward Ho! 
Badeau .... Conspiracy. 

Spanish diplomacy and American politics. 

Victor .... Last Days o£ Tul. 

Lost Cities of Yucatan. 
Warburto.n . . Darien. 

Buccaneers of Spanisii Main. 

Mexico. 
Wallace . . . The Fair God. 

Bl-vrt Adventures of a Young Naturalist.t 

Ober The Silver City. 

The scene of this story is laid in Central America. 

Africa. 

Ebers An Egyptian Princess. 

Describes very accurately life in Egypt long ago. 

The Bride of the Nile. 

Uarda. 

Serapis. 
Haggard . . . Jess. 

This story describes scenes and events among the Kafirs in South Africa. 
It is a plain, simple story, and quite different from others by the same author. 

Verne .... Five Weeks in a Balloon. 

Discoveries in Africa by three Englishmen. 
Ralph Iron . . The Story of an African Farm. 

Scenes in South Africa. 

FRENCH AND GERMAN WORKS 

Some of the best books of travel are published every year 
by the French and Germans. A few of the choicest and 
most recent are catalogued below. All of these books can 
be found under their author's name in the Bates Hall of the 
Boston Public Library. 

Froiu-li. 

Delaporte . . . Voyage au Canibodge. Fine illustrations. 
PiASSETSKY . . . Voyage a Travers la Mongolia et la Chine. 

A full account, with sketches, of a journey from Kiachta through Mongolia 
to Peking, and other places m China. 



S04 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



COTTEAU .... Un Touriste dans I'Extreme Orient. 

The author describes his visits to the great cities of Japan, China, and Indo- 
China. 

R6glus .... Nouvelle Geographie Universelle de I'Afrique 
Occidentale, Archipels, Atlantique, etc. 
1887. 
Histoire d'une Montagne. 
La Terre a Vol d'Oiseau. Illustrated. 
France, Algerie,- et Colonie. Illustrated. 
Voyage aux Regions MinieresdelaTransylvanie 
Occidentale. 
MoNTANO . . . Voyage aux Philippines et en Malaisie. 
A welcome addition to our knowledge of an interesting island-group. 

MosER. . . • . . A Travers I'Asie Centrale. 

It deals largely with the Khirgiz, Turkomans, and other native races. 

Le Brun-Renaud, Les Possessions Fran9aises de I'Afrique Occi- 
dentale. 1886. 
L'Algerie et la Tunisie. 1887. 
La France dans I'Afrique du Nord. 
Geographie Generale. 1888. 
This geography conveys broad views of the subject, and keeps in mind the 
intimate relation between physical and political geography. 

Le Bon .... Les Civilisations de I'lnde. Illustrated. 1887. 
Jacolliot . . . Voyage aux Pays Mysterieux. 
Ceresole . . . Legendes des Alpes Vaudoises. Illustrated. 
Brerson .... Bolivia: Sept Annees d'Explorations. 
Vaujany .... Alexandrie et la Basse-figypte. Illustrated. 
HuEBNER ... A Travers I'Empire Britannique. 2 vols. 
MoRAES .... Africa Occidental, Album. 

An album of photo-lithographs taken in South-western Africa. The views 
are well chosen, and represent the scenery, types of natives, etc. 

Wauters . . . Le Congo au Point de Vue ficonomique. 

The author gives a geographical account of the Congo State and neighbor- 
ing regions. 

WouvERMANS . . Liberia, Histoire de la Fondation d'un £tat 
Negre Libre. 
A rosy picture of the Negro state. 

Manheimer . . Du Cap au Zambeze. 



Leroy-Beaulieu 

ViGNON . . . 
FONCIN . . . 



GERMAN WORKS 505 



German. 

Heyfelder . . . Transkaspien unci seine Eisenbahn. 1888. 
GIJRSKELDT . . . Raise in den Andes von Chile und Argentinien. 
188S. 
A valuable book describing a careful exploration of the South American 
Cordilleras between 32° and 35° S. Lat. The author ascended from Santiago. 

Schmidt .... Sansibar. Ein ostafrikanisches Culturbild. 
1888. 

The author describes the town, the houses, and the people. It is the most 
recent book on the island. 

Egli .... Geschichte der geographischen Namenkunde. 

1886. 
FiNSCH .... Ueber Bekleidung, Schmuck, und Tatowirung 

der Papuos der Sudostkiiste von Neu 

Guinea. 
ZoLLER .... Forschungsreisen in der deutschen Colonie Ka- 

merun. 3 vols. 
These volumes describe the German possessions in West Africa. 
Paulitschke . . Die Sudanlander nach dengegenwartigen Stande 

der Kenntniss. 
An instructive resume of the whole Sudan region. 

NoRDENSKioLD . Gronland. 

It gives an account of the journeys into the interior of Greenland between 

68° and 69° N. 

LiNDAU .... Aus der Neuen Welt. 

ilEiM Handbuch der Gletscherkunde. 

Gives scientific theories, facts, and observations concerning glaciers. Pro- 
fessor Heim is the professor of geology in the Swiss Polytechnic and Univer- 
sity of Zurich. 

Die Balearen. Fully illustrated. 

Contains the most charming illustrations, giving a complete idea of the 
physical aspects of the country. 

Lenz Timbuktu. Reise durch Marokko, die Sahara 

und den Sudan, etc. Illustrated. 

LoEWENBERG . . Geschichte der geographischen Entdeckungsrei- 
sen. 

Zaffauk .... Die Erdrinde und ihre Forinen. 1885. 



If 06 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



REFERENCE BOOKS 

American Almanac, Spofford, librarian o£ Congress. Published 
r^inuallyby American News Company. Price, $1.50. 

Atlas of Physical Geography. Bryce. 

Commerce. Yeats. 1887. Chishom, 1890. 

Com.pendium of Geography (6 vols, illus.). Price, $6 per vol 
;?ub]ished by Stanford, London. 

Condition of Nations (statistics, 1878-80). Kalb. 

Cyclopcedia of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. Ilomans. 
f'rice, I7.50. Published by Harpers. 

Cyclopcedia of Geography. Charles Knight, London, 1856. 

Dictionary of Commerce and Com?nercial Navigation, 1882. McCul- 
loch, London.' 

English Fisheries. Parliament Reports, No. 15. 1886. 

Etymological Derivations of Geography. Blackie. 

Geographie Universelle, la Terre et les Hommes, par Reclus (10 vols.). 

General Gazetteer. Brooks. Published by Ward, Leek, & Co., 
London. 

Gazetteer of the World. Published by Lippincott & Co. Price, ^10. 

General Dictionary of Geography. Johnston. Published by 
Longmans, London. 

Historical Geography of Ejirope. Freeman. Published by Long- 
mans, London. 

Natural Resources of the United States. 1888. Patton. 

Statesman's Year Book (statistics). Keltic. Published annually, 
London and New York. Macmillan & Co. 

Chisholtn's Handbook of Commercial Geography. 

Trade and Finance Annual. Barkers. 

United States Fisheries (natural history of aquatic animals). 

Words and Places (etymological illustration of geography). Taylor. 



COSTLY ILLUSTRATED BOOKS 

Thebes. (Photos.) Abney. 

Eluna. 5 vols. (Photos.) Burgess. 

Tour in Mexico. Bondelier. 

Monument de Ninive. 5 vols. 

New York and other Obelisks. Gorringe. 

Spain. Davillier. 

Egypt. Ebers. 



COSTLY ILLUSTRATED BOOKS 507 

The East. (Colored illustrations.) Field. 

The Fables. Fontaine. 

Works of France. 5 vols. (Large photos.) 

Tour de France. 2 vols. 

Les Chateaux, France. 2 vols. 

Royal Photo Album, India. (100 photos.) 

Imperial Assemblage, Delhi. 

La Ilollande. Havvard. 

La Flandre. Havvard. 

Ancient Architecture in Hindoostan. 

Les Hindous. (English translation. Colored illustrations.) 

Japan. (German edition.) Heine. 

Palestine. French. 4 vols. 

Jerusalem. (Photos.) 

Le Tour du Monde. 

Earth and its Inhabitants. Reclus. 

Etchings on the Mosel. 

Mummies. (Photos.) Mespero. 

Travels in South America. 2 vols. Marcoy. 

Mountain, Lake, and River. North America. 

Voyage en Perse. 6 vols. 

Rambles in Norway. Pritchette. 

Paris. 

Picturesque Europe. 

Picturesque America. 

India. Rousselet. 

The Rhine. 

Rheinfahrt. 

Bavarian Highlands. Schmid. 

Sinai. (Photos.) 

Switzerland. (Photos.) 

China. (Photos.) 4 vols. 

Jerusalem. (Photos.) Tristram. 

Unser Vaterland. 

Nile Sketches. (Colored illustrations.) Werner. 

Jerusalem. Wilson. 

Rambles in Northern India. (Photos.) Wilson. 



5o8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 



RECREATION QUESTIONS IN GEOGRAPHY, FOR LEISURE MOMENTS 

1. What is an isobar? 

2. What is an isotherm ? 

3. How are winds named ? 

4. Why is Cape Horn so called ? 

5. Does one feel warmer at the top, or bottom, of a hill ? 

6. When are dog-days, and why so called ? 

7. Do the moon and sun rise in the same place? 

8. What country contains the most coal ? 

9. Which are older, the rivers of Florida or those of Massa- 
chusetts ? 

10. What is a tidal wave ? 

11. How can delicate organisms exist under the enormous 
pressure at great depths of the sea? 

12. In what kind of rocks are fossils found ? 

13. Is snow ever seen in the tropics? 

14. What is the snow line? 

15. Where is the Height of Land? 

16. What is the difference between mosses and lichens ? 

17. Are there many glaciers within the Arctic circle ? 

18. Does dew yiz//hke rain? 

19. What is the difference between sand and loam ? 

20. Where is cannel coal found, and for what is it used ? 

21. How did the discovery of natural gas change the habits 
of the people of a certain city ? 

22. Which has more population, New York City or the State 
of Maine ? 

23. What is meant by long-distance telephone ? 

24. Along what river in this country are there mountains of 
stratified rock-salt f (Snake River.) 

25. Where is the Hyperborean Sea ? 

26. Define mesas and buttes. 

27. Where is the "Garden of the Gods "? 



RECREATION QUESTIONS IN GEOGRAPHY 509 

28. Where is the longest tunnel in the world ? the longest 
canal ? 

29. Who wrote " Three Years of Service " ? 

30. Name a good geographical novel. 

31. What is the difference between oceanic and continental 
islands ? 

32. Along what parallel has the great belt of civilization 
moved ? 

33. What country was the " world's eldest born " ? (Egypt.) 

34. Is there any difference between the arctic and antarctic 
regions ? 

35. How can you best place a school globe so as to see at a 
glance the pyramidal southern projections of several masses of 
land and the vastness of the oceans ? 

36. Who was Malte Brun ? 

37. What Eastern State has seventeen hundred lakes, each 
not less in size than one square mile ? 

38. What is the meaning of these geographical names ? 
Norwich, Hampton, Bradford, Deerfield, Pittsburg, Winchester, 
Connecticut, Missouri, Saybrook. 

39. Who are our antipodes ? 
40 What is the nadir? 

41. Can we see light as it passes through the sky? 

42. How high can a balloon rise? 

43. Why is silk-raising more profitable in Italy or California 
than on the same parallel in the eastern part of the United States ? 

44. Where does Lehigh coal come from ? 

45. What minerals are almost entirely wanting in the United 
States ? 

46. Who wrote " Natural Resources of the United States " ? 

47. Where is the "lead" in our pencils mined? 

48. Does all the sun's heat reach the earth's surface? 

49. For what are Syracuse and Saginaw noted ? 

50. What is the difference in height between Denver and 
Mount Washington ? 



5IO METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

51. Where are all the millions of slate-pencils made? 

(Castleton, Vt.) 

52. Why are the following capes so named ? Verde, Blanco, 
Good Hope, Farewell, Finisterre, Cod, St. Roque, Henry, 
Charles, and Barrows. 

53. Where is the " Comstock Lode " ? 

54. What difference would it make in the climate of the 
United States if the mountain ranges ran east and west? 

55. Does a ship go to Europe any quicker than it returns ? 

56. Where in the United States do most of the storms 
originate ? 

ST- For what is kaolin used ? 

58. Of what special use are the mountains of the United 
States ? 

59. Where is the centre of the United States, including 
Alaska ? 

60. For what common metal is the Etta mine in the Black 
Hills noted ? (Tin.) 

61. What city in this country employs ten thousand persons 
to make 4,500,000 collars and cuffs each year ? (Troy.) 

62. About when are the three hottest days each year east of 
the Mississippi ? (July 12-17.) 

63. Is Omaha in the eastern or western half of the United 
States ? 

64. The number of miles of railway in the United States 
would go round the globe how many times ? 

()^. What range of mountains in this country is noted for 
four distinct uses ? 

66. What fractional part of the United States is east of 
the Mississippi River, exclusive of Alaska? 

d^. What three towns are due north of your own, named in 
order of nearness ? 

68. In what direction do you usually see a rainbow ? Why ? 

69. What is the difference between a picture and a map ? 



RECREATION QUESTIONS IN GEOGRAPHY 51I 

70. What five powers have the most territory ? 

71. What two insects are extensively reared in Europe ? 

72. Where is "Grandfather Mountain"? 

73. How many days does it take for a letter to go from 
London to Bombay? (16 days, 17 hours.) 

74. What countries in the world are republics ? 

75. Name in order of value the mining industries of the 
United States. 

76. Where are glass bottles made ? 

TT- What section produces the most silver ? 

78. Does France export or import wheat? 

79. How many Indians are there in the United States? 

80. What people of Asia are nomadic ? 

81. Where are pouch-bearing animals abundant? 

82. What are atolls ? 

83. Where are the Moluccas? 

84. What State in the United States is the same size as 
Borneo? 

%^. What is the standard width of railroad tracks ? 

86. In what country do the leaves turn their edges towards 
the sun ? 

87. Do people in passing turn out to the right in all English- 
speaking countries ? 

88. Where is there the greatest fall of rain, — in Vera Cruz, 
or California ? (183 inches and 19 inches general average.) 

89. Who are the Gauchos ? 

90. Where is the Doge's palace ? 

91. What country has a Grand Lama? an Ameer? a Khe- 
dive ? a Khan ? a Viceroy ? 

92. What grand division is the " Country of Beginnings "? 

93. Which race is the most numerous ? 

94. What are the " Continents of History " ? 

95. What is hennequen, and where does it abound? 

96. Where is "the roof of the world "? 



512 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

97. Where is " the land of the midnight sun " ? 

98. Whe /e are the Lesser Antilles ? 

99. What different countries have been partitioned ? 

100. Is the whistle of the locomotive heard to-day within the 
Arctic Circle ? (Yes, in Northern Sweden.) 

loi. Where is the exact antipodes of Boston? 

102. What monument is imitated by the Washington Mon- 
ument in respect to relative size of base and height ? 

103. How does the nearest steeple compare in height and 
size with the big trees of California ? 

104. What people have homes not as clean as their neighbors 
the birds and the bees ? 

105. In what place in the world is there no sear or yellow 
leaf? (Penang.) 



INDEX 



An index is a necessary implement. Without this a large autho; 
is but a labyrinth without a clew to direct the reader therein. 

Dr. Fuller 



5'3 



INDEX. 



Activity of Children, i6. 
Adams, Cliarles F., 140. 
Advanced Lesson, 199. 
Advantages of Pictures, 127. 

Topical Method, 55. 
Africa, 94-98, 360, 437, 473- 

Books on, 473. 

Poems on, 449, 
Agriculture, North America, 304, 325. 
Aims, 23. 
Alaska, 2S8. 
Ample Knowledge, 3. 
Animal Life, Nortli America, 297. 
Apparatus, 75-87. 
Arctic Regions, Books on, 210, 211, 

464. 
Area : 

Alaska, 144. 

Argentine Republic, 142. 

Brazil, 143. 

British India, 142. 

California, 145. 

United States, 141. 
Artificial Water-Routes, 355. 
Asia, 62, 439. 

Books on, 477. 

Poems on, 449. 
Attention, 14, 15. 
Average Child, 7. 

Backup, Miss, 134. 

Bamboo, 177. 

Belts of Forests and Deserts, 187. 

Better Methods, 44. 

Birch-bark Canoe, 289. 

Blackboards, 79, So, 81. 

Blank-Book, 51. 

Bonanza Farm, 303. 

Books with Pictures, 127,131,132,251. 

in Paper Covers, 497. 

tor Consultation, 2, 22, 38, 54, 

76, 90, 100, 1 38, 190, 240, 245, 

252, 256, 286, 322, 342, 362, 

3S6. 

Books ot Reference, 58, 506. 

Brief Courses, 24. 

Briet History ot North America, 257. 



British America, Books on, 465. 
Busy Work, 158. 

Calderwood, 17. 
California Farm, 302. 
Careful Preparation, 57. 
Central America, Books on, 466. 
Change of Seasons, 416-419. 
Charts, 83, 84, 85. 

Animals, 156. 

Review, 169. 

Size of Rivers, 156. 
Child's Mind, 11. 
China, Books on, 478. 
Chinese Opposites, 177. 
Circles, 148. 
Classify, 19. 

Climate, N. America, 207, 291, 294, 296- 
Climes, Children of, 163. 
Cloth Blackboard, 81. 
Collection, 136. 
Comenius, 18. 
Commerce : 

England, 346, 347. 

Facts, 356, 364. 

France, 347. 

How carried on, 348. 

Modern, 364-366. 

North America, 329-332. 

Threes of, 359. 
Commercial Centres, 345. 
Commercial Countries, 345. 
Commercial Geography, 341-360, 361- 

384- 
Comparisons, 260, 280, 300, 312, 334. 
Comparative Shapes, 152. 
Comparative Sizes, 139. 
Comparative Size, North America, 261 
Comparisons in Area, 140, 339. 
Consumption ot Different Articles, 344 
Contour Lines, 109. 
Corea, 175. 

Costly Illustrated Books, 506. 
Course of Study, 221. 
Cramming Method, 43. 
Currents, 167, 16S. 
Customs, North America, 312. 



5i6 



INDEX. 



Definition of Geography, 30. 

Depressions, 187. 

Devotional Exercises, 1S5. 

Diamonds, 367. 

Directions to Teachers, 257, 287, 295, 

3'2,323> 33i> 333. 368, 379. 382, 388- 
Discoveries, 33. 
Dull Pupils, 7. 

Ear, 16. 

Earth's Daily Motion, 412. 

Rotation, 413. 

Yearly Motion, 414. 
Education, North America, 314-317. 
Egypt, Books on, 474. 
Elevations, 170. 
, North America, 269. 

Emile, 9. 

EntJiusiasm, 59 ' ' 
Europe, Books on, 441, 484. 

Poems on, 449. 
Exact Knowledge, 5. 
Exact Science, 6. 
Examination, 66. 
Experiment, 398. 
Exports, 330, 332, 369, 375-379> 3S2. 

Foreign, 369. 

Leading, 375-379. 
Express Business, 366. 
Eye, 17. 

Feeling of Confidence. 6. 
Fishing, North America, 310. 
Fitch, 18. 

Foreign Mails, 150. 
Forests and Deserts, 187. 
Free Intercourse, 6. 
French Works, 503. 
Froebel, 18. 
Funny Lesson, 183. 

General Commerce, 346. 
General Culture, 35. 
General Intelligence, 35, 
Geographical Books, 453-507. 
Geographical Composition, iSi. 
Geographical Grammar, 124. 
Geographical Readers, 4^7. 
Geographical Scrap-Book, 174. 
Geographical Societies, 431. 
Geographical Stories, 49S. 
Germany, Books on, 485. 
German Books, 505. 
Giant Trees, 290. 
Government, North America, 317. 
Grazing, North America, 30S. 
Great Britain, Imports of, 382-384. 



Great Britain, Books on, 486. 
Great Dipper, 407. 
Great Lakes, North America, 273. 
Great Railroad Routes, 349-354. 
Greenland, 2S8. 

Habit of Attention, 15. 

Hale's Book, 14. 

Hamilton, 8. 

Harper's Magazine, 427, 42S. 
j Heath's Progressive Maps, 118. 
I Helps, 226, 228, 232, 239, 244, 249. 

Hemisphere, Northern, Southern, 157. 

Herodotus, 32. 

Highlands, North America, 264. 

Historical Geography, 168. 

History, 226, 228, 232, 238, 243, 247, 

Humboldt, 29. 

Idea?, 13. 

Illustrated Composition, 179, 181. 
Illustrated Works, 132. 
Imagination, 166. 
Importance, 31. 
Important Water-Routes, 354. 
Imports, 331, 332, 368, 380, 383. 
India, Books on, 479. 
Indians, Books on, 467. 
Industries, 371. 

Industries, Mediterranean, 163, 164. 
Inhabitants who live in a Wet or Dry 
Climate, 172. 
in a Warm or Cold, 174. 
I Italy, Books on, 487. 

Japan, Books on, 481. 
Journeys, North America, 337. 



Knowledge, 5. 



Lakes, North America, 273. 
Language, North America, 311. 
Large Maps, 120. 
Leading Exports, 375-379. 
Leading Imports, 380-382. 
Leading Productions, 372-375. 
Legendary Geography, 6. 
Lena, 19. 

Life, North America, .-295, 297. 
List of One Thousand Books, 456. 
Loan Collection, 134. 
London, 175. 

Mails, 150. 

Manners and Customs North Amer- 
ica, 312-314. 
Manufactured Goods, 358. 



INDEX. 



517 



Manufacturing, N. America, 305, 306. 
Map-Drawing, 110- 113 
Map-Language, 91. 
Map-Questions, 23, 42. 
Map- Reading, 93. 
Maps, 92, 99-120, 154. 
Mariner's Compass, 394. 
Mathematical Geosraphy, 3S5-424. 
Memorizing, 41. 
Mental Discipline, 26. 
Mexico, 290. 

Books on, 466. 
Mining, North America, 306. 
Miscellaneous Devices, 137, 139, 187. 
Miscellaneous Books, 443, 470, 472, 

476, 482, 492, 494. 
Mississippi Valley, 171. 
Mitchell's Geography, 125. 
Model Lessons, 94, 189. ^^ 
Modern Geography, 32. 
Mont Blanc, Poem on, 445. 
Moon, 39S, 420-422. 
Mouth of the Po, 155. 

Natural Divisions, North America, 

291. 
Natural Water-Routes, 355. 
Nature Teaching, 9. 
Necker, i 5. 

New England, Books on, 466. 
North America, 255-340, 433. 

Agriculture, 301, 304. 

Books on, 433, 464, 499. 

Brief History, 257. 

Climate, 291, 294. 

Commerce, 329-332. 

Comparative Size, 261. 

Comparisons, 339, 340. 

Customs, 312-314. 

Education, 314-317. 

Elevations, 269. 

Fishing, 310. 

Government, 317. 

Great Lakes, 273. 

Grazing, 308. 

Highlands, 264. 

Journeys, 336. 

Language, 311. 

Life, 295, 29/. 

Manners, 312-314. 

Map-Drawing, 112. 

Natural Divisions, 291. 

Manufacturing, 305, 306. 

Mining, 306. 

Occupation, 301. 

Plains, 270. 

Poems for Illustrations, 447, 



N. America, Political Divisions, 287. 

Population, 299. 

Position, 259. 

Productions, 323-329. 

Races, 298. 

Representative Cities, 333. 

River -Systems, 273. 

Size, 261. 

Striking Characteristics, 258. 

Surface, 263. 

Trip round the Coast, 261. 
North Star, 395. 
No-study Method, 43. 
Noted California Farm, 302. 
Noted Trade Routes, 349. 

Objects, 78, 121, 123, 133-136, 249. 
Observations, 388, 395, 404, 409. 
Observing Powers, 13. 
Occupations, North America, 301. 
Ocean Currents, 293. 
Oceanica : 

Books on, 494. 

Poems on, 451. 
Odds and Ends, 165. 
Orbis Pictus, 124. 
Orderly Instruction, 10. 
Ostrich-Feathers, 367. 
Outline of Principles, 20. 
Outline of the World, 70. 
Oyster Farmer, 176, 

Panama Canal, 165. 

Papers and News, 172. 

Paris, 175. 

Payne, 8, 10. 

People of the Atlantic Coast, 290. 

Pestalozzi, 17. 

Physical Geography, 167. 

Pliysical Maps, 108. 

Pictures, 121, 123-132, 239, 244, 251- 

253- 
Place Names, 451. 
Plains, North America, 269, 270. 
Plant Distribution, 154. 
Poems of Places, 443. 
Polar Discoveries, 34. 
Polar Regions, 289. 
Political Divisions, N. America, 287, 
Population, 147, 148. 

North America, 299. 
Position, Nortli America, 259. 
Practical Object of the Book, 4. 
Practical Suggestions, 50, 70, 227, 232, 

241, 246, 253. 
Principles Involved, i 
Products, 149. 



5i8 



INDEX. 



Productions, 369, 372. 

Leading, 372-375. 

World's, 369. 
Productions, North America, 323-329. 
Productions, in Color, 155. 
Progressive Maps, 1 14-1 19. 
Progressive Outline Maps, 116. 
Putty Maps, 107. 

Races, North America, 29S. 

Railroad Routes, 349. 

Rainfall, 158. 

Raised Maps, 102. 

Raw Materials, 357. 

Rays, 399. 

Reading Hour, 71-73. 

Reading and Talking, 392, 403, 423. 

Recitation, 191, 207. 

Recreation Oiiestions, 50S. 

Reference Books, 68, 506. 

Relative Importance, 31. 

Repetition, 19. 

Representative Cities, N. America, 333. 

Reviews, 19, 158. 

Ritter, 27. 

River Systems, North America, 273. 

Rocky-Mountain Highlands, 196. 

Rocky Mountains, Books on, 468. 

Rousseau, 9. 

Routes, 349, 355. 

Rubber Pen, 84. 

Rulers, 173. 

Russia, Books on, 489. 

Sand Maps, 103-106. 
Schedule of Topics, 46, 48. 
Science of the Where, 26. 
Science for Children, 457. 
Science for Adults, 461. 
^ Sensation and Attention, 14. 
Shape of the Earth, 403. 
Shapes of Countries, 153. 
Siberia, Books on, 482. 

Poem on, 444. 
Sight, 18. 

Sign for the Thing, ig. 
Six Years' Course, 221-254. 
Size of Continents, 139. 

of the Earth, 393. 

Nortii America, 261. 

of other Countries, 140, 146, 151. 

Comparative, of Cities, 146, 147 

Comparative, of Mountains, 

140, 146. 

Comparative, of United States, 

141, 151. 
Sketch Maps, 162, 171. 
Suggestive Questions, J2ii 219, 319, 

424, 452. 



Solar Camera, 86, Zy. 
Song of the Directions, 394. 
Soubriquets, 178, 179. 
Sources of Pictures, 129. 

of Information, 427. 

of Illustration, 427, 443. 

of Knowledge, 28. 
South America, 61, 67, 436. 
South, the, Books on, 469. 
Spain, Books on, 490. 
Spare, Miss, 135. 
Special Commercial Centres, 357. 
Special Information, 429. 
Spencer, 18. 
Statistics, 148, 149, 371. 
Steamers, 368. 
Stencil Maps, 82. 

Striking Characteristics, N. Am., 258. 
Study, 224, 227, 231, 237,242, 246,390, 

400, 410. 
Study with Children, 16. 
Sugar-Cane, 175. 
Summer Saunterings, 79. 
Sun, 420. 

and Earth, 402. 
Surface, North America, 263. 
Surface Zones, 156. 
Switzerland, Books on, 491. 

Teaching Capacity, 5. 

Text-book Method, 39, 40. 

Threes of Commerce, 359. 

Thring, 8, 11. 

Tides, 422. 

Topical Method, 16, 45, 55, 64, 65. 

Topics, 46, 48, 237. 

for Reading Hour, 72. 
Trade Routes, 349. 
Transfer Maps, 82. 
Trans-Pacific Mails, 152. 
Travels for Children, Books of, 459. 

for Adults, Books of, 46-]. 
Trip round North America, 261. 
Turkey, Books on, 491. 
Tyrol, 175. 

Upheavals and Depressions, 187. 

Vegetable Life, North America, 297. 

Water-Routes, 354, 355. 
West Indies, Books on, 469. 
White's Memory, 11. 
World, Outline of, 70. 
Books on, 495. 
Wrong Methods, 39. 



p 



IPTllDCQniii: flEOGRAPHICAL 

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